350 DUTIES. (See Revenue.) DUTIES-DUVAL. DUVAL, Valentine Jameray, librarian of the emperor Francis I, born in 1695, was the son of a poor peasant in the village of Artonay, in Champagne. In his 10th year, he lost his parents; in his 14th year, being driven from his native place by the want of employment, half famished, and soon after attacked by the small pox, he wandered about in the open country, in the terrible winter of 1709. Providence conducted him to the cell of the good hermit Palemon, who received him, permitted him to share his labors, and taught him to read. Here Duval became devout without being superstitious. He then exchanged this quiet retreat for another at St. Anne, near Luneville. Here his only company was four ignorant hermits; his employment, tending six cows, and his only means of improvement, some volumes of the Blaue Bibliothek; but he finally succeeded in learning to write. An epitome of arithmetic, which fell into his hands, highly interested his youthful mind. In the solitude of a forest, he received his first ideas of astronomy and geography. In order to procure the means of educating himself, he killed game, and, in a few months, the proceeds of his toils furnished him with a little stock of money. Happening to find a gold seal engraved with a coat of arms, he had it advertised by the minister of the place. An Englishman by the name of Forster appeared as the owner, and Duval gave it up to him on condition that he would explain to him the coat of arms. Surprised by this honesty and curiosity, Forster rewarded him so bountifully, that his library, which had been gradually forming out of the hunting fund, was increased to 200 volumes, while he spent nothing on personal or external conveniences. Engaged in his studies, Duval paid little attention to his herd, and thereby displeased the hermits. One of them even threatened to burn his books. This roused the spirit of Duval. He seized a fire-shovel, drove the brother out of his own cell, and shut himself up in it. The other brothers came with the superior, but he refused to open the door till they had agreed to pass over all that had happened, and to allow him, in future, two hours a day for studying, while he, on his part, was to serve them 10 years more for his clothes and victuals. Duval was now secure. He pursued his studies with more zeal than ever in the forest where his cows were grazing. He was found one day by the young princes of Lorraine, while thus busy with his maps and charts. They made him an offer, on the spot, of placing him with the Jesuits, at Pont-à Mousson. He accepted it, but only on condition that his liberty should not be sacrificed by it. He soon made such rapid progress, that duke Leopold took him with him to Paris, in 1718, to see what effect this new scene would have upon him. But Duval declared that all the pomp of the city and its works of art were far inferior to the majesty of the rising or setting sun. On his return, Leopold appointed him his librarian, and made him professor of history in the academy at Luneville. These offices, and the lessons which he gave to the young Englishmen studying there (among whom was the famous Chatham), afforded him the means of rebuilding his old hermitage of St. Anne. When Lorraine was ceded to France, he removed, with the library under his care, to Florence, where he staid 10 years. The emperor Francis invited him to Vienna, to form a collection of medals. Here he died in 1775. With all his learning, Duval was exceedingly modest. His Euvres, précédées de Mém. sur sa Vie, were published at Petersburg, Bàle, and Strasburg, in the year 1784, in two volumes quarto. DUVAL, Alexander, member of the French academy, and one of the most popular writers for the theatre in our time, was born in 1767, at Rennes, entered the navy, and served in the American war under admiral De Grasse. He was then appointed secretary of the deputation of the states of Bretagne to Paris. Circumstances obliged him to leave that city, and he served as geographical engineer in the construction of the canal of Dieppe. His passion for the theatre, in 1791, led hin to the Theatre Français as an actor. He was soon induced, by the dangers of his country, to return to the military service, and acted as a volunteer in the first campaign of the revolutionary war. After his return to the French theatre, he was involved in the same fate with the other actors, and escaped the scaffold with his comrades only by the courage of a secretary in the committee of general security, who ventured to conceal the papers relating to the accusation. He was liberated by the events of the 9th Thermidor, and relinquished the theatre to devote himself solely to literature, in which he soon came to be regarded as one of the most successful writers of comedy and the opera. We have about 50 pieces from him, of which many have been admitted into the French Répertoire. His little pieces, Maison a DUVAL--DWARFS. mre, Le Prisonnier, La jeunesse d' Henri V, and several others, are among the most popular pieces on the French and German stages. (See his Euvres Complètes, Paris, 1822, 9 vols.)—His brother, Amaury Duval (q. v.), distinguished for his knowledge of ancient and modern literature, exerted a highly beneficial influence on him by his criticisms. 351 1811, he became a member of the institute, in the class for history and literature, to which the old name of academy of inscriptions and fine arts has again been given. He belongs to the committee engaged in the continuation of the literary history of France, which was commenced by the Benedictines. Among his other writings are to be noticed his prize essay on ancient and modern burials (Des Sépultures chez les Anciens et les Modernes); his work on the monuments of Paris (Paris et ses Monumens, 3 vols., folio); and the Essays and Observations on the Theatre of the Romans, published by him and his brother, the fruitful dramatic writer, Alexander Duval. (q. v.) DUVAL, Amaury; one of the most eminent scholars of France; born 1760, at Rennes. He fitted himself for the practice of law at an early age, and, in his 20th year, distinguished himself as an advocate in the parliament of Bretagne, where, amongst other things, he gained great reputation by his defence of a young man who, in a fit of jealousy, had shot his DWARFS. In ages when knowledge rival. He soon, however, left his profes- depends mostly on tradition, it is natural sion for diplomatic pursuits, and, in 1785, for the human mind to people the world was made secretary of legation at Naples. with a thousand imaginary beings. Such In Italy, he visited all the monuments of are dragons, giants and dwarfs; all of antiquity, and collected, during his resi- which have some foundation in reality, dence of several years at Naples, rich and afford amusement to the imagination, materials for a work on antiquities, which even after experience has corrected the he had long been contemplating. He belief in the reality of their marvellous remained some time in Italy, after the character. We need hardly say, that the return of the embassy with which he was pygmies of the ancients, and the Quimos, connected, in order to prosecute his re- whom Commerson tells us that he dissearches. When he was in Rome, in covered, are as fabulous as the renowned 1792, he obtained a secretaryship by Lilliputians. The dwarfs which actually means of Basseville, then ambassador of exist are deviations of nature from her the French republic, and in the insurrec- general rule; and the term dwarf is a tion of Jan. 1793, in which the ambassa- vague one, as we cannot say how small a dor lost his life, he was himself in great person must be to be so called. There is danger. He was rescued, by a soldier, no instance on record of dwarfs distinfrom the hands of the populace, and put guished for talents. Their figures are somein prison. Having obtained his liberty in times perfectly well proportioned. They the course of a few days, he was sent, by have generally one trait in common with his own wish, to Naples. He soon aban- children-a very high opinion of their doned a profession which, at a time when own little person, and great vanity. The all the European courts were closed Romans used dwarfs for several purposes; against the ambassadors of the French sometimes in gladiatorial exhibitions, on republic, offered no prospects to his am- account of the ridiculous contrast which bition. He now devoted himself to lite- they afforded to their opponents. Torary labors, and, in company with Champ- wards the end of the middle ages, and fort, Ginguené, Say and others, com- even, in some countries, as late as the menced the Decade philosophique, in which beginning of the last century, dwarfs were he took a very active part, till this peri- a fashionable appendage to the courts of odical was united with the Mercure de European princes, and the families of the France, in the year 1808, when it took the nobles. Who does not recollect the nuname of Revue, which Duval continued to merous pictures of those times, with a publish till 1814. During this period, he Negro or a dwarf in the back-ground? thrice won the prize offered by the French They seem to have been great favorites institute on questions in political economy, with the ladies of the family. They were ethics and antiquities. Under the direc- sometimes, also, used as fools. Peter the tory, he was placed at the head of the Great carried this fancy for dwarfs to a department of arts and sciences, in the great extent. He assembled individuals ninistry of the interior, and held it till of this kind from all parts of his empire, 1815, when he shared the fate of most of and ordered the famous marriage of the the other officers, who were superseded dwarfs. At the court of Constantinople, by men of the old school of politics. In a number of dwarfs are always main tained, as pages. Those who happen to be, at the same time, deaf and dumb, and have been mutilated, are particularly valued, and reserved for the sultan. DWELLING. (See Domicil, and Habitation.) DWIGHT, Timothy, an eminent divine, was born of reputable parents, at Northampton, in Massachusetts, May 14, 1752. He was admitted a member of Yale college in September, 1765, when he had just passed his 13th year; and, after leaving college, he took charge of a grammarschool at New Haven, where he taught for two years. While in this situation, his time was regularly divided: six hours a day in school; eight hours in study; and the remaining ten hours in exercise and sleep. In 1771, he became a tutor in Yale college, where he remained for six years. At the age of 19, Mr. Dwight commenced writing the Conquest of Canaan, a regular epic poem, founded on a portion of sacred history. It was concluded in 1774, but was not published until 1795. On receiving the degree of master of arts (1772), he delivered a Dissertation on the History, Eloquence, and Poetry of the Bible, which was immediately printed, and afterwards republished, both in this country and in Europe. He was also deeply engaged, during his residoneo in collego as a tutor, in the study of the higher branches of the mathematics. About this period, he attempted, by restricting his diet, to remove the necessity of bodily exercise; but, after pursuing his course of abstinence and study about a year, he became subject to severe attacks of the bilious colic, which so wasted his strength, that it was with the utmost difficulty he could be removed to Northamp ton. His physician, having administered successfully for his present relief, advised the daily use of strong bodily exercise, as the only means of restoring his constitution. Adopting this system, he walked upwards of 2000, and rode upwards of 3000 miles, in the course of a twelvemonth. The result of this was the perfect restoration of his health, which continued good for the ensuing 40 years of his life. The college was broken up in the month of May, 1777, the students leaving New Haven, and pursuing their studies under their respective preceptors, in situations less exposed to the incursions of the enemy. Mr. Dwight, with his class, went to Wethersfield, where he remained with them till September. He was this summer licensed as a preacher, by a committee of the northern associa tion, in his native county of Hampshire; and, in addition to teaching his pupils, he preached during the summer of 1777; and, in September of the same year, he was nominated chaplain in the army. In addition to the duties of his station, he contributed not a little to heighten the enthusiasm of the soldiers by writing several patriotic songs, which enjoyed a deserved popularity. The circumstance of his father's death, in October, 1778, obliged him to resign his office, in order to assist his mother in the support and education of her family. He accordingly removed his own family to Northampton, where he resided five years, laboring on the farm through the week, preaching to different congregations in the neighborhood on Sundays. He likewise established a school, in which he received a large number of pupils, and employed two assistants. He was twice elected, about the close of the revolutionary war, a member of the legislature of the state. In 1783, he was ordained minister of Greenfield, a parish in the town of Fairfield, in Connecticut. Immediately upon settling at this place, doctor Dwight opened an academy, which soon acquired a reputation then unequalled in this country. A large number of pupils, from all parts of the Union, as well as from abroad, resorted to this school, where, in the course of his 12 years' residence, he taught more than 1000 scholars; adopting, to a certain extent, the system since called the monitorial. In the year 1787, the college of Princeton, New Jersey, conferred upon him the degree of D. D. In 1794, he published a poem, in seven parts, under the title of Greenfield Hill, which, as well as the Conquest of Canaan, was republished in England. On the death of the reverend doctor Styles, in 1795, doctor Dwight was elected president of Yale college, which was in a depressed state. His reputation soon brought to the college a great accession of students. When he entered the office of president, the professorship of theology was vacant, and, several fruitless attempts having been made to fill it, he engaged to perform the duties. He was annually elected to this chair for 10 successive years, at the end of which period the appointment was made permanent, and he continued to fill it for the remainder of his life. In the year 1797, at the request of the general association of Connecticut, he undertook the revision of doctor Watts's version of the psalms, to supply such as were omitted, and to make a selection of hymns DWIGHT-DYEING. adapted to public worship. In 1800, he submitted his work to a joint committee of that body and of the general assembly of the Presbyterian church, by whom it was approved and recommended. Besides making many alterations in the version of doctor Watts, he wrote 33 entire psalins. In the year 1796, he commenced travelling, during the college vacations, particularly in May and September, for the sake of exercise, and continued this practice through the remainder of his life. In these excursions, principally through the New England states and New York, he took notes, and afterwards wrote them out, for the gratification of his family. This work was published after his death, in four volumes, octavo. It embraces an account of the natural aspect of the territories over which he travelled, and of the condition of society in those states. It also contains notices of eminent men of that portion of the Union, and anecdotes illustrative of the history and customs of the aborigines. Doctor Dwight died January 11, 1817, after repeated and severe attacks of a disease, the character of which was not well understood. His death was regarded as a severe loss to the cause of learning and religion in his country. Besides the works already mentioned, is his Theology, being a collection of his theological lectures, which has been published since his death, and has passed through several editions, in the U. States and England. DYEING is a chemical art, and consists in fixing upon cloths of various kinds any color which may be desired, in such a manner as that they shall not easily undergo any alteration, by the agents to which the cloth is ordinarily exposed. The chief materials of stuff to be dyed are wool, silk, cotton and linen; of which the former two are more easily dyed than the latter. Wool, in its preparation for dyeing, requires to be cleansed, by scouring, from a fatty substance, called the yolk, which is contained in the fleece. This is done by means of a weak alkaline solution, which converts the yolk into soap. Putrid urine is commonly employed, on account of its cheapness; the ammonia it contains being sufficient to remove the grease. Silk, when taken from the cocoon, is covered with a kind of varnish, which, because it does not easily yield, either to water or alcohol, requires also the aid of a slight portion of alkali. Much care is necessary, however, in this operation, since the silk itself is liable to be corroded and discolored. Fine soap is commonly used; but even this is said to be detri30* 353 mental; and the white China silk, which is supposed to be prepared without soap, has a lustre superior to the European. The preliminary process of washing is intended to render the stuff to be dyed as clear as possible, in order that the aqueous fluid, to be afterwards applied, may be imbibed, and its contents adhere to the minute internal surfaces. Another preparation, and one which constitutes, in reality, an important part of the dyeing process, consists in applying to the stuff a material to which it adheres; and afterwards the desired color is obtained by the application of another substance. We might dye a piece of cotton black, by immersing it at once in ink; but the color would be neither good nor durable, because the particles of precipitated matter are not sufficiently comminuted to enter the cotton, or to adhere to it firmly. But, if the cotton be soaked in an infusion of galls, then dried, and afterwards immersed in a solution of sulphate of iron, the acid of galls being every where diffused through the fabric, it will receive the particles of oxide of iron, at the very instant of their transition from the fluid to the solid state; by which means a perfect covering of the black, inky matter will be applied in close contact with the surface of the most minute fibres of the cotton. The name of mordant is applied to those substances which unite with the different stuffs, and augment their affinity for the various coloring matters. There exists a great number of mordants; some, however, are very feeble in their activity, while others are attended with too much expense for common stuffs; some alter the colors which they are intended to combine, or modify their shades: hence it results, that there are but a small number which can be employed. These are alum, acetate of alumine, muriate of tin, and nut-galls. The mordant is always dissolved in water, into which the stuffs to be dyed are plunged. If the mordant be universally applied, over the whole piece of goods, and this be afterwards immersed in the dye, it will receive a tinge over all its surface; but if it be applied only in parts, the dye will strike in those parts only. The former process constitutes the art of dyeing, properly so called; and the latter the art of printing woollens, cottons, or linens, called calico-printing. In the art of printing piece goods, the mordant is usually mixed with gum or starch, and applied by means of blocks or wooden engravings, in relief, or of copper plates, and the colors are brought out by immersion in vessels filled with suitable compositions. The latter fluids are termed baths. The following are the processes adopted, when alum is the mordant employed: 1. Alum mordant for silk. Into water containing the 60th part of its weight of alum, at the ordinary temperature of the air, the silk is plunged, and allowed to remain for 24 hours, when it is withdrawn, drained and washed. If the liquid is warmed, it is found that the silk absorbs less of the mordant, and that, of course, it combines less easily with the coloring matter, besides losing, in part, its natural gloss. 2. Alum mordant for wool. When it is wished to combine wool with this mordant, after its cleansing has been effected, it is plunged into a boiling solution, composed of 8 or 900 parts of water, and 25 of alum, where it is allowed to remain during 2 hours; when it is taken out, suffered to drain, and washed. Frequently a little cream of tartar is added in this process, in order to engage the excess of acid in the alum, as well as the portion arising from a slight decomposition of the alum by the oily matter of the wool. 3. Alum mordant for cotton, hemp and flax. This operation is effected by plunging the body to be imbued with this mordant into water slightly warmed, and which contains one quarter of its weight of alum, and leaving it 24 hours, at the common temperature of the air; when it is withdrawn, washed and dried. The cotton will be sufficiently imbued with the mordant, if allowed to remain in the solution only 7 or 8 minutes, pressing it a little, without twisting it, however, on taking it out, and not immersing it in the coloring bath until 12 or 15 hours after. In all alum mordants for wool, the alum of commerce may be employed; but when silk or cotton is to be dyed, especially if the colors are bright, it is necessary to make use of the alum of Rome, or of that which is equally pure; that is to say, of alum which does not contain above 1-500th of its weight of sulphate of iron; otherwise there will be a great quantity of oxide of iron adhering to the fabric, which will affect the shade we desire to obtain. The coloring matters to be transferred to the various stuffs are either soluble or insoluble in water. When they are soluble in water, which is most generally the case, they are dissolved in it at a boiling temperature; and the material to be dyed, after having been duly prepared, and impregnated with the mordant, is plunged into it, where it is allowed to remain for a certain time, and at a temperature varying with the nature of the stuff. When, on the contrary, the coloring matter is insoluble in water, its solution is effected in some other fluid, and the article to be colored (prepared as in the former case, with the exception that the application of the mordant is omitted) is immersed, and the coloring matter is precipitated by the addition of a third body. Silks are dyed at a temperature which is gradually increased from 86° to 175° Fahr. If the bath is heated above 86°, at the commencement of the process, the effect of the mordant is diminished, and the desired shades of color will not be produced. For the same reason, in dyeing hemp and flax, the temperature should not exceed 97° Fahr. Cotton and woollens may be dyed at a boiling heat. Various mechanical contrivances are made use of in immersing the different materials to be dyed into the coloring solution, so as to cause all their parts to be equally affected at the same time. As soon as they are withdrawn from the coloring bath, they are washed in a large quantity of water, in order to deprive them of those particles of coloring matter that are merely superficial. The following are the dye-stuffs used for producing fast colors: I. Black. The cloth is impregnated with acetate of iron (iron liquor), and dyed in a bath of madder and logwood. 2. Purple. The preceding mordant, diluted, with the same dyeing bath. 3. Crimson. The mordant for purple, united with a portion of acetate of alumine, or red mordant, and the above bath. 4. Red. Acetate of alumine is the mordant (see Alumine), and madder is the dye-stuff. 5. Pale red, of different shades. The preceding mordant, diluted with water, and a weak madder bath. 6. Brown of Pompadour. A mixed mordant, containing a somewhat larger proportion of the red than of the black, and the dye of madder. 7. Orange. The red mordant, and a bath, first of madder, and then of quercitron. 8. Yellow. A strong red mordant, and the quercitron bath, whose temperature should be considerably under the boiling point of water. 9. Blue. Indigo, rendered soluble and greenish-yellow colored, by potash and orpiment. It recovers its blue color by exposure to air, and becomes firmly fixed upon the cloth. An indigo vat is also made by diffusing indigo in water, with quicklime and copperas. These substances are supposed to act by deoxidizing indigo, and, at the same time, rendering it soluble. Golden dye. The cloth is immersed alternately in a solution of copperas and |