In do. Calvinists, Roman Catholics, 5,500,000 750 Presbyterians, 800,000 1,500 Church of England and Ireland, Methodists and other sects, 400,000 300,000 Places of worship, 740 Clergymen, 1,700 1,150 Archbishops, 4 1,500 Bishops, 18 33 700 Archdeacons, 34 730 Canons, prebends, &e. 500 750 Dignitaries, 587 1,113 do. Lutherans, There are in France about 9000 clergymen generally engaged in tuition, who have not employments in the church, but who render occasional and regular aid to the ministers of the churches; they are the remnants of the times before the revolution; their number is diminishing fast, and is not renewed. Taking these into consideration, there is in France one clergyman for every 830 persons. The following estimates are taken from the Remarks above quoted, as are also the preceding respecting Scotland, &c. Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy of the Established Church of England. IN ENGLAND AND WALES. Hearers,. Working clergy, Ecclesiastical (For full particulars, see Register, printed by Nolan, Dublin.) One place of worship for every 540 hear The whole population is 12,000,000; if one half are hearers of the establishment, it is certainly the outside. 6,000,000 8,000 8,000 . £500,000 One place of worship to 750 hearers. One clergyman to 750 hearers. Voluntary contributions at an average rate of £65 for each clergyman. 6,000,000 of hearers, at £85,000 11,743 Income,. 18,000 24 60 per million,. 27 544 657 cu 17,343 One place of worship for every 500 hear £510,000 (See the numbers of each sect in the table of the Scotch kirk.) Of which England, for 21 millions, pays more than half (as things then stood). The restriction in the preceding paragraph applies to a similar estimate in our article Church. ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. (See Chris tianity. ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. (See Church, States of the; also Curia, Papal.) ECHALOTE (allium ascalonicum); a kind of onion, a native of Syria, which has been cultivated in Europe for some centuries. The leaves are radical, awl-shaped and hollow; the stem naked, 6 to 8 inches high, terminated by a globose umbel of purplish flowers. The roots are pungent, but have an agreeable taste, and are generally preferred to the onion for various purposes of cookery. ECHARD, Lawrence; an English divine and historian of the last century. He was born in Suffolk in 1671, and studied at Cambridge. He died in 1730. Among his works are, The Roman History, 3 vols. 8vo.; A General Ecclesiastical History, 2 vols. 8vo.; both works extending only to the age of Constantine; A History of England to the Revolution, 3 vols. folio; The Gazetteer's or Newsman's Interpreter. ECHEA (xta from xw, I sound), in ancient architecture; the name which the ancients gave to the sonorous vases of bronze or earth, of a bell-like shape, which they used in the construction of their theatres, to give greater power to the voices of their actors. The size of these vases was proportioned to the magnitude of the building, and their conformation such, that they returned all the concords from the fourth and fifth to the double octave. They were arranged between the seats of the theatres in niches made for the purpose; the particulars of which are described in the fifth book of Vitruvius. According to this ancient author, such vases were inserted in the theatre at Corinth, from whence Lucius Mummius, at the taking of that city, transported them to Rome. It would appear that similar means have been employed in some of the Gothic cathedrals, to assist the voices of the priests and choristers; for in the choir of that at Strasburg, formerly belonging to a monastery of Dominicans, professor Oberlin discovered similar vases in various parts of the vaulted ceilings. The student is referred to Mr. Wilkin's translation of Vitruvius for further speculations on this curious mode of construction. ECHELON (French; a ladder or stairway); used in military language. A battalion, regiment, &c., marches en échelon, or par échelon, if the divisions of which it is composed do not march in one line, but on parallel lines. The divisions are not exactly behind each other, but each is to the right or left of the one preceding, so as to give the whole the appearance of a stairway. This order is used if the commander wishes to bring one part of a mass sooner into action, and to reserve the other. If the divisions of the échelon are battalions, these are generally from 100 to 200 steps from each other. ECHENEIS; the remora, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order thoracгог. Generic character: head furnished on the top with a flat, oval, transversely grooved shield; gill-membrane, with ten rays, according to Gmelin, and six, according to Shaw; body not scaled. There are three species. The echineis remora, or Mediterranean remora, is of the length of from 12 to 18 inches. Among the ancients, its peculiarity of structure and habits was connected with the most incredible and marvellous circumstances, which are, however, detailed with all possible gravity and faith, by their most profound naturalists. Pliny states, that the force of the tide, the current and the tempest, joining in one grand impulse with oars and sails, to urge a ship onwards in one direction, is checked by the operation of one small fish, called remora by the Roman authors, which counteracts this apparently irresistible accumulation of power, and compels the vessel to remain motionless in the midst of the ocean. He credits the prevailing report, that Antony's ship, in the battle of Actium, was kept motionless by the exertion of the remora, notwithstanding the efforts of several hundred sailors; and that the vessel of Caligula was detained between Astura and Antium by another of these fish found sticking to the helm, and whose solitary efforts could not be countervailed by a crew of 400 able seamen, till several of the latter, on examining into the cause of the detention, perceived the impediment, and detached the remora from its hold.The emperor, he adds, was not a little astonished, that the fish should hold the ship so fast in the water, and, when brought upon deck, appear to possess no power of detention over it whatever. This confiding naturalist expresses himself as perfectly convinced that all fishes possess a similar power, and states, as a notorious example, the detention of Periander's ship by a porcellane, near the cape of Gnidos. Quitting, however, the fables of antiquity, it may be observed, that the fins of the remora are particularly weak, and thus prevent its swimming to any considerable distance, on which account it attaches itself to various bodies, inanimate or living, being found not only fastened to ships, but to whales, sharks, and other fishes; and with such extreme tenacity is this hold maintained, that, unless the effort of separation be applied in a particular direction, it is impossible to effect the disunion without the destruction of the fish itself. As the remora is extremely voracious, and far from fastidious in its food, it may attach itself to vessels and large fish with a view to secure subsistence. This fish will often adhere to rocks, and particularly in boisterous and tempestuous weather. The apparatus for accomplishing this adhesion consists of an oval area on the top of the head, traversed by numerous dissepiments, each of which is fringed at the edge by a row of very numerous perpendicular teeth, or filaments, while the whole oval space is strengthened by a longitudinal septum. It is reported by some authors, that, in the Mozambique channel, a species of remora is employed by the natives of the coast in their pursuit of turtles with great success. A ring is fixed near the tail of the remora, with a long cord attached to it, and, when the boat has arrived as near as it well can to the turtle, sleeping on the surface of the water, the remora is dismissed, and immediately proceeds towards the turtle, which it fastens on so firmly, that both are drawn into the boat with great ease. ECHINUS, or SEA EGG; a marine animal, inhabiting the seas of most countries, and subject to great variety in the species. Echinus esculentus, the edible sea egg, is common on the coast of Europe, and is esteemed as an article of food. In systematic arrangements, the genus echinus of Linnæus has been much divided, and is at present restricted to those species which have an orbicular, oval or globular body, covered with spines, articulated on imperforate tubercles. These spines are very slightly attached, and fall off the dead animal on the least friction; in consequence, the specimens which commonly come under observation are deprived of them entirely. Five ranges of pores diverge from the summit, and tend to the centre beneath, dividing the shell into well marked sections. The mouth is situated on the inferior surface, in the centre, and is armed with five osseous pieces or plates; anus superior. Many species are ornamented with a profusion of long and pointed spines, while in others, they are quite short. It is by means of these spines that the animals change their position, and move from place to place. The apparatus of the mouth is provided with strong muscles, and is well calculated for crushing the hard portions of the animal's food. In the same species the colors va ECHINUS-ECKMUHL. ry considerably, the traits changing, however, on the death of the animal. Echini are said to retreat to deep water on the approach of a storm, and preserve themselves from injury by attaching themselves to submarine bodies. E. melo is perhaps the largest species known, and is found not uncommonly in the Mediterranean. Many fine species have been discovered in a fossil state imbedded in chalk, &c., in beautiful preservation. Upon the coast of the U. States, several species of recent echini are found, and some also occur in the fossil localities. The species constituting the genus have not been well determined. 393 ed a polysyllabic echo. If the distance is less, the echo repeats fewer syllables; if only one is repeated, then the echo is monosyllabic. The most practised ear cannot distinguish, in a second, more than from 9 to 12 successive syllables, and, for a monosyllabic echo, a period of at least half a second is requisite. Hence we see why arched walks and halls echo, without producing a clear and distinct sound.-Some of the walls are too near; and some form an uninterrupted series of surfaces at different distances, and the ear is not able to distinguish the original sound from the first echo, nor to separate the numerous echoes which are thus confounded with each other. On the contrary, if several reflecting surfaces are at different distances, each of them may produce a distinct echo, of which the first is the strongest, because the others are weakened by a longer passage through the air. As the reflection of sound depends on the same laws as those which regulate the reflection of light, on which the science of catoptrics depends, the doctrine of echoes is sometimes called the catoptrics of sound; a better name is cataphonics, or catacoustics. The place of the sounding body is called the phonic centre, and the reflecting place or object, the phonocamptic centre. The most celebrated echoes are that at Rosneath, in Scotland, and that of the Villa Vimourtia, near Milan, which repeats a word 30 or 40 times. ECHO; daughter of the Air and Tellus; a nymph, who, according to fable, was changed by Juno into a rock, because her loquacity prevented Juno from listening to the conversation of Jupiter with the nymphs. The use of her voice, however, was left her so far as to be able to repeat the last word which she heard from others. Another account is, that Echo fell in love with Narcissus, and, because he did not reciprocate her affection, she pined away, until nothing was left but her voice. ECHO. When sound strikes against a distant hard surface, it is reflected, and heard again after a short space; this repetition is called echo. If the sound is repeated several times, which is the case when it strikes against objects at different distances, many echoes are heard. This phenomenon is not caused by a mere repulsion of the sonorous particles of air, for then every hard surface would produce an echo; but it probably requires a degree of concavity in the repelling body, which collects several diverging lines of sound, and concentrates them in the place where the echo is audible, or, at least, reflects them in parallel lines, without weakening the sound, as a concave mirror collects in a focus the diverging rays of light, or sometimes sends them back parallel. Still, however, the theory of the repulsion of sound is not distinctly settled, probably because the nature of reflecting surfaces is not sufficiently known. The reflecting surface must be at a certain distance, in order that the echo may come to the ear after the sound, and be distinctly separated from it. Observation proves ECKMÜHL; a village on the Laber, in that sound travels 1142 feet in a second; the Bavarian circle of the Regen, remarkconsequently, an observer, standing at half that distance from the reflecting object,. would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo, then, would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a second. This is call ECKHEL, Joseph Hilary, a learned Jesuit, who distinguished himself greatly by his works on coins, medals, and other remains of classical antiquity. He was born at Enzersfeld, in Austria, in 1737. After becoming a member of the society of St. Ignatius, he was appointed keeper of the imperial cabinet of medals, and professor of archæology at Vienna. He died in 1798. Eckhel may be regarded as the founder of the science of numismatics, the principles of which are elaborately developed in his treatise entitled Doctrina Nummorum Veterum, 8 vols. folio, finished in 1798. He also published catalogues of the ancient coins and gems in the imperial cabinet, and other learned treatises. His first work was Nummi veteres anecdoti, 1775. able for the battle of April 22, 1809. Austria, encouraged by the national war, which had been kindled in Spain against Napoleon, entered the contest without allies, but, trusting chiefly to England and the Porte, with an energy greater than she had ever before displayed. She called out all her regular forces, and the militia lately organized by the arch-duke John; the arch-duke Charles commanded in the character of generalissimo. While count Stadion, with Gentz and others, summoned the Germans to arms by proclamations, and conducted the negotiations, the army was destined to put an end to the confederation of the Rhine, and the power of France in Germany, Poland and Italy, and to restore to Austria and the German empire their former independent position in the European system. Six corps d'armée, under the arch-duke Charles, with two bodies of reserve, in all 220,000 men, guarded the Iser and Munich (April 16), and the Danube and Ratisbon (April 20); the seventh corps, under the archduke Ferdinand of Este, 36,000 strong, took possession of the duchy of Warsaw; and two corps, 80,000 strong, under the arch-duke John, menaced Italy, the Tyrol having already (April 11) taken up arms in favor of Austria. Napoleon's victory at Eckmühl decided the campaign of 1809, on the Danube, in the vicinity of Ratisbon, and compelled Austria to give up her offensive operations, and to reassume the disadvantageous attitude of defensive war. The operations on the Danube, during the five days from the 19th to the 23d of April, cannot, therefore, be disconnected from the important battle of Eckmühl. Napoleon left Paris, April 13, and promised the king of Bavaria, at Dillingen, on the 16th, to restore him to his capital within a fortnight, and to make him more powerful than any of his ancestors; on the 18th, his head-quarters were at Ingolstadt. Here he determined to concentrate the different corps of his army commanded by Davoust, Oudinot, and Masséna, the Bavarians under the command of Lefebvre, and the Würtemberg troops under Vandamme, in all 200,000 men; Poniatowski, in expectation of the Russian auxiliary corps, was charged with the defence of Warsaw; the viceroy Eugene, step-son of Napoleon, was to protect Italy; and marshal Marmont, Dalmatia. Napoleon himself prepared for the attack. For this purpose, Oudinot, by the affair at Pfaffenhofen, on the 19th April, effected a junction with Masséna, on the 20th; at the same time, Davoust, who advanced from Ratisbon, attacked the arch-duke Louis at Tann (a town in the Bavarian circle of the lower Danube) and Rohr, while the Bavarians, under Lefebvre, fell upon his rear. Davoust, with the Bavarians, then joined the main army, under Napoleon, who now commenced the attack in person. While Davoust kept in check three corps of the Austrian main army, under the arch-duke Charles, Napoleon, with the Bavarians and Würtembergers, and the French corps under Lannes and Masséna, fell upon the Austrian left wing, consisting of about 60,000 men, under the arch-duke Louis and general Hiller, at Abensberg (near Ratisbon), on the 20th, who were thus cut off from the Danube and the arch-duke Charles. Charles, meanwhile, had taken possession of Ratisbon on the 20th, formed a junction with the corps which advanced from the upper Palatinate, stormed the heights of Abbach, on the right bank of the Danube, on the 21st, and taken position at Eckmühl, which commands the communication with Ratisbon. Here, having concentrated four corps, he menaced the victor of Abensberg in his rear, and hoped to make himself master of the road to Donauwerth, on which the possession of Bavaria depended. But Davoust and Lefebvre held him in check on the 21st, and, on the 22d, Napoleon, with the divisions of Lannes and Masséna, the Würtembergers and the cuirassiers, advanced from Landshut to the Danube, and attacked the arch-duke, at two o'clock in the afternoon, at Eckmühl, where the Bavarians and Davoust were already engaged. This movement decided the contest. The Würtembergers took the village of Burghausen; the Bavarian general Seidewitz, with two Bavarian regiments of cavalry, carried an Austrian battery, which commanded the road from Landshut to Ratisbon; Lannes flanked the Austrian left, whilst Davoust, Lefebvre and Montbrun attacked them in front. The Austrians obstinately defended their second position, and the Würtemberg infantry took the village of Eckmühl by storın. At this time, the French cavalry broke the Austan lines, on the plain in the rear of Eckmühl. The Austrian infantry, thus taken in flank, were thrown into disorder, and the arch-duke Charles himself was saved only by the fleetness of his horse. Thus, about 110,000 Austrian troops, under an able general, covering a position of 12 miles in length, were attacked from all quarters by about 130,000 French and Germans, extending over a line of 29 miles, were outflanked on their left wing, and totally routed. During the night, the arch-duke passed the Danube, and attempted to cover his retreat by defending Ratisbon, which was indifferently fortified. Napoleon moved on like |