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the accused is entitled, as of right, to the assistance of counsel in his defence; and this right, also, is generally secured by the state and national constitutions of government. This is not the place for a discussion of the value of such a right, though to us it seems recommended by principles of policy as well as of justice and humanity. The mode of impanneling juries, the right of challenge, and other incidents of criminal trials, belong more appropriately to other heads. (See Crime, Courts, and Jury.)

CRISIS (from Kpivey, to decide), in medicine; a point in a disease, at which a decided change for the better or the worse takes place. The crisis is most strongly marked in the case of acute diseases, and with strong patients, particularly if the course of the disease is not checked by energetic treatment. At the approach of a crisis, the disease appears to take a more violent character, and the disturbance of the system reaches the highest point. If the change is for the better, the violent symptoms cease with a copious perspiration, or some other discharge from the system. In cases where the discharge may have been too violent, and the nobler organs have been greatly deranged, or where the constitution is too weak to resist the disease, the patient's condition becomes worse. In regular fevers, the crisis takes place on regular days, which are called critical days (the 7th, 14th and 21st); sometimes, however, a little sooner or later, according to the climate and the constitution of the patient. A bad turn often produces a crisis somewhat sooner. When the turn is favorable, the crisis frequently occurs a little later. After a salutary crisis, the patient feels himself relieved, and the dangerous symptoms cease.-It hardly need be mentioned, that the word crisis is figuratively used for a decisive point in any important affair or business, for instance, in politics.

CRISPIN; the name of two legendary saints, whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. They are said to have, been born at Rome, about 303 A. D., and to have travelled to France to propagate Christianity, where they died as martyrs. During their mission, they maintained themselves by shoemaking; hence they are the patrons of shoemakers.

CRITICAL PHILOSOPHY. (See Kant, and Philosophy.)

CROATIA; a kingdom of the Austrian monarchy, connected with Hungary. It is divided into Civil and Military Croatia. The former contains 3665 square miles,

441,000 inhabitants, 7 cities, 16 market towns, 1827 villages, and consists of the three counties of Agram, Creutz, and the Hungarian Littorale (of which the principal place is Fiume). It is watered by the Drave, Save, Culpa and Unna, and bounded by Hungary, Sclavonia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Illyria and Styria. Military Croatia (see Military Districts) contains 6100, according to some, 4884, square miles, with 414,800 inhabitants, in 6 cities, 6 market towns, and 1241 villages. The inhabitants are Croats and Rascians, mixed with a few Germans and Hungarians. The Croats, a Sclavonic tribe, are Roman Catholics, and are known as good soldiers, but have made little progress in science and the arts; nay, they have not among them even all of the ordinary mechanics. Their language is the Slaveno-Horwatic dialect. In Turkish Croatia (on the Unna and near Bihatsch), they are Greek Catholics. Civil Croatia is fertile, and intersected by heights of very moderate elevation, extending down from Styria and Carniola. Military Croatia, however, towards Bosnia and Dalmatia, has mountains rising to the height of 5400 feet; as, for instance, Wellebit, the Plissivicza mountains, and the mountains of Zrin. The climate is healthier than that of the neighboring Sclavonia, and mild. The country produces chiefly wine, tobacco, grain of various sorts, including maize, fruits, particularly plums, wood, cattle, horses, sheep, swine, game, fish, bees, iron, copper, and sulphur.

CROCODILE (Crocodilus); a genus of saurian, or lizard-like reptile, species of which are found in the old and new world. That inhabiting the Nile and other rivers of Africa has been known for many ages, and celebrated, from the remotest antiquity, for qualities which render it terrible to mankind. As the largest reptile known, and as the most ferocious and destructive of the inhabitants of the waters, it could not but command the attention, and excite the fears, of those who were near enough to observe its peculiarities. Few persons have read the sublime book of Job, without being struck with the magnificent and terrible description of the attributes of leviathan to which alone the characters of the crocodile correspond. It is not surprising that the Egyptians, who deified almost

The skeletons of much larger reptiles have from the strata in which they were found, it is been discovered within the last half century; but, certain they had become extinct long before the earth was inhabited by man.

every thing, should place among their gods animals so powerful and destructive, though a better reason is to be found in the defence which they afforded against the incursions of Arabs and other robbers, who were not fond of adventuring across 'canals and rivers frequented by crocodiles. A regular priesthood and worship were consecrated to this ferocious deity, and in the temple of Memphis a sacred individual of the species was reared with great care, being abundantly fed, adorned with jewels, and lodged in a spacious basin, having offerings and sacrifices made to him. Being thus fed and managed, the terrible reptile became sufficiently mild and tractable to be led about in ceremonial processions. When he died, the priests embalmed his body, and buried it in the royal sepulchre! So much for the wisdom of the nation which is commonly regarded as the most enlightened of antiquity! The most ancient description of the crocodile is that given by Herodotus, in his observations on Egypt, in his first book. This account, though mingled with a considerable share of fable, is generally correct; and some of the errors still in existence concerning this animal, appear to be derived from his statement: such are the stories of the bird which picks the crocodile's teeth, and that the animal moves only the upper jaw. The latter assertion, though utterly incorrect, is repeated, even at this day, by persons who have had opportunities of knowing better from actual observation, had they not been too much blinded by prejudice to profit thereby. The genus is characterized by the following peculiarities: The tail is compressed or broadest vertically; the posterior feet are wholly or partly palmated; the tongue attached to the mouth, even to its very edges, without being in the least extensible; a single range of simple pointed teeth; the male organ single. There are five toes on the front, four on the hind feet, only three toes of each foot being provided with claws. The body, above and below, and the entire length of the tail, are covered with square scales or plates, most of those on the back having ridges or spines of various lengths: the flanks are only protected by small round scales. Two ranges of spines, forming a double dentated line, are placed at the base of the tail, which subsequently unite or form a single ridge on the remainder of its length. The ears are externally closed by two fleshy slips; the nostrils form a long narrow canal, which only opens interiorly at the

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back of the throat. The eyes are provided with three lids; and under the throat there are two small pouches, which secrete a strongly musky substance. Cuvier has divided the genus into three sub-genera, viz. gavials, having an elongated narrow beak or snout; caymans, or alligators, with broad snouts, and having four lower teeth to fit into holes excavated for them in the upper jaw, and crocodiles proper, having the head oblong, twice as long as broad, and the four long lower jaw teeth passing by grooves, and not entering into cavities in the upper jaw. The gavials are most common in, if not peculiar to, the great rivers of India. The alligators are confined to the new continent, and the crocodile proper, with a single exception, to Africa. These reptiles are truly formidable, from their great size and strength, and, if they were not rendered unwieldy by the length of the body and tail, might become as dreadful on land as in the water, where they can act to the greatest advantage. Where they abound, it is extremely dangerous to venture into the rivers for the purpose of bathing, or to be carelessly exposed in a small boat. On shore, their shortness of limb, great length of body, and difficulty of turning, or of advancing otherwise than directly forward, enable men and animals readily to escape pursuit. For a crocodile of 12, 15, or 18 feet in length, to turn fairly, it must necessarily describe a very large circle. In the water, the vast force it can exert by means of the long oar-like tail, amply compensates for want of flexibility, and renders the animal more than a match for any of its enemies. The force with which it darts through the water, in pursuit of prey, resembles the flight of an arrow rather than the progression of a huge animal, and, when engaged in rude gambols, or in combating with others of its kind, the waves are lashed into foam, and may be truly said to "boil like a pot." The mouth, when expanded, forms a horrible chasm, extending even to the ears, and armed around its border by strong pointed teeth. This construction, with the absence of lips, and the confined position of the tongue, show that the action of the mouth is confined simply to seizing and tearing the food. These animals are exclusively carnivorous, feeding on such animals as frequent the waters, on fish, or carcasses thrown into the streams they inhabit. They always prefer their food in a certain state of putrefaction, and are found to keep animals killed by themselves in the mud, until this process has

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begun. In regard to the general character and habits of crocodiles, we might safely refer to the account given in the first volume of this work, under the title Alligator, which has been more carefully observed. They are so similar in every respect, that what is said of the American species, with very slight modification, will hold good of the African. The crocodile of Egypt is no longer found, except in the upper parts of that country, where the heat is greatest, and the population least numerous. Anciently, the species was common nearly to the outlet of the Nile; and it is stated by Pliny, that they used to pass the winter months buried in the mud, in a state of torpidity. They are still common enough in the river Senegal, the Jaïre, Joliba, &c. The size to which these creatures grow is very remarkable, and would lead us to believe that they live to a vast age. It is stated by excellent authorities, that individuals have been killed in Upper Egypt measuring 30 feet in length. M. Cloquet, who was one of the French institute, engaged in exploring that country, while the armies of the republic were present, saw a crocodile 25 feet long. A little reflection upon the muscular power of such a reptile will serve to convince us of its ability to commit extensive ravages on the lives of other creatures. There are numerous particulars connected with the anatomy of these beings, which are very curious and interesting. Such are the articulations of the lower jaw with the upper, the joint being so far back as to cause almost every incidental observer to believe that the upper, not the lower jaw, is moved in opening the mouth; the lateral spines on the vertebræ, which prevent the turning of the body, except in a large circle; the curious set of ribs designed exclusively for the protection of the belly, aided by two broad bones standing on the anterior edge of the pelvis, which may be compared with the ossa marsupialia of certain quadrupeds; the construction of the external ears; the apparatus for the protection of the eye, &c., &c. But for such details, we are under the necessity of referring the reader to treatises especially devoted to their illustration. The species of crocodile admitted by Cuvier, in the excellent researches contained in the 10th and 12th volumes of the Annales du Muséum, are the following: 1. the common crocodile of Egypt (C. vulgaris); 2. the doublecrested (C. biporcatus); 3. the lozenge crocodile (C. rhombifer); 4. the two-plate crocodile (C. biscutatus); and 5. the Hay

tian (C. acutus), the only true crocodile found in the new world, according to his definition. The memoirs above referred to contain very minute and satisfactory accounts of the discriminating marks of these species, and to that source the reader who desires such information may refer with great advantage.

CREESUS, the last king of Lydia, lived in the sixth century before Christ. He was brave, and augmented his empire by the conquest of many provinces of Asia Minor. His riches, which he obtained chiefly from mines, and the gold dust of the river Pactolus, were greater than those of any king before him; and the expression "riches of Croesus" came to signify unbounded wealth. Proud of his treasures, he carried his love of splendor to extravagance, and thought himself the happiest of men. Herodotus tells us that Solon visited him at his court, and, on being asked by him who was the happiest man he knew, mentioned, first, Tellus, then Cleobis and Biton, all three humble individuals of Greece, who had died in the midst of a virtuous career. The story of these individuals, as related by Solon, is one of the most affecting and charming passages in the work of the father of history. Croesus manifested displeasure that the choice of the sage had not fallen upon him; but Solon reminded him that no one can be safely pronounced happy until his death; and Croesus was soon forced to acknowledge the truth of the reflection, having lost two beloved sons by violent death, and having been conquered himself by Cyrus, against whom he had waged war for the benefit of the Babylonians. He was taken prisoner in his capital, Sardis, and, having been placed on a pile in order to be burnt, he three times exclaimed, "Oh, Solon!" Cyrus, having learned the meaning of his exclamation, was much moved, ordered him to descend, took him as his companion in his wars, and treated him well. The time of the death of Crœsus is not known. He was alive in the reign of Cambyses, the son and successor of Cyrus. He is represented as one of the most pious among the ancients, constantly laboring to please the gods. Some historians deny the interview with Solon; others do not mention his having been sentenced to be burnt: at all events, the history, as it is told in Herodotus, is equalled by few narratives, true or fictitious, in touching simplicity.

CROCUS. (See Saffron).
CROISADE. (See Crusade).

CROIX, Saint, is the name of many rivers and places, as is also Santa Croce in Italian, Santa Cruz in Spanish, and the compositions with Kreuz in German. Among the many St. Croix are:

St. Croix, or Schoodic, or Passamaquodly; a river of North America, which divides Maine from New Brunswick, and flows into Passamaquoddy bay. It is navigable for ships 25 miles.

St. Croix; a river in the North-West Territory, which runs into the Mississippi 90 miles below St. Anthony's falls. It is navigable for boats about 100 miles.

St. Croix; a river of Canada, which runs into the river St. Maurice 33 miles above Quebec.

CROKER, Jolin W.; first secretary to the board of admiralty, member of the British parliament, a poet, and an active contribu.or to the Quarterly Review. He was born in Dublin, 1781, and, after having studied in Trinity college, in that city, was entered at Lincoln's Inn, and, in 1802, admitted to the Irish bar. In 1807, he was chosen member of parliament for Downpatrick (Ireland), and has ever since retained a seat in that body. In 1809, he distinguished himself by his activity in the affair of the duke of York and Mrs. Clarke, and was rewarded with the appointment of secretary for Ireland during the absence of sir Arthur Wellesley (duke of Wellington), and soon after with that of first secretary to the admiralty. In parliament, he is a fluent speaker, and an efficient supporter of the ministry. Mr. Croker has published several literary works of some merit, which appeared anonymously. Among them are, Familiar Epistles on the Irish Stage (poetical, 1803); an Intercepted Letter from China (1805), a Satirical Sketch; State of Ireland, past and present (1807); the Battle of Talavera, a poem, in which the battle is described with much fire (1809). He has been one of the most lively and popular of the regular contributors to the Quarterly Review. His articles have been more commonly on literary than political subjects, and show much tact and considerable talent. His favorite weapon is sarcasm. The most of the articles on French literature are from his pen, and display much illiberal prejudice, with not a little ignorance of the subject.

CROMLECH, OF CROMLEH, in British antiquities; huge, broad, flat stones, lying upon other stones set up on end. They are common in the isle of Anglesea. These monuments are described by Mr.

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Rowland, Dr. Borlase, &c., under the name of are, or altars. Mr. Rowland, however, is divided in his opinion, supposing them to have been originally tombs, but that, in after times, sacrifices were per formed upon them to the heroes deposited within. There is an account of king Harold having been interred beneath a monument of this kind, in Denmark; and Mr. Wright discovered, in Ireland, a skeleton deposited in one of them. Mr. Toland mentions a cromlech in Nevern parish, in Pembrokeshire, South Wales, having the middle stone 18 feet high and 9 broad towards the base, but narrowing upwards; and by it there lay a broken piece, 10 feet in length, which seemed to be of a weight heavier than 20 oxen could draw. But at Poitiers, in France, there is one supported by five lesser stones, much exceeding all in the British islands, as it is 50 feet in circumference. This he conceives to have been a "rocking-stone." At Boudoyr, in Anglesea, there is a noble cromlech, many of the stones being 30 tons in weight.

CROMWELL, Oliver, protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, one of the most powerful characters that ever rose from a revolution; a statesman and general, who, with the Bi ble in one hand, and the sword in the other, raised and ruled the stormy elements of political and religious fanaticism; with a bold, yet artful ambition, achieved great enterprises, and planned still greater; admired, feared, and calumuiated by his contemporaries, and first truly appreciated by after ages,—was born at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, and descended from a family which traced its genealogy through Richard Williams, who assumed the name of Cromwell from his maternal uncle, Thomas Cromwell, secretary of state to Henry VIII, and through William ap Yevan, up to the barous of the 11th century. His father, Robert Cromwell, proprietor of the borough of Huntingdon, had a seat in parliament, but, at the same time, to support a numerous family, undertook a large brewing establishment. Oliver received a careful education. Anticipations of future greatness early seized upon his imagination. When a child, he met with several hairbreadth escapes. During his infancy, a large ape snatched him out of his cradle, and, to the terror of the family, mounted with him to the roof of the house. Some years after, he was rescued by a clergyman from drowning. The unusually strict discipline of the grammar school at

which he was educated, created a disgust in the ambitious boy for all prescribed tasks. While at school, he performed with great enthusiasm, in the old play of Lingua, the part of Tactus, who finds a crown and purple mantle. He retained an impression, in after life, of having seen, in his youth, an apparition of a gigantic woman at his bedside, who told him that he would become the greatest man in the kingdom. In his 17th year, he went to Cambridge, where he studied with zeal, but, at the same time, carried his fondness for athletic exercises even to a love of brawls and combats. After staying there a year, his mother sent him to study law in London, where he became a member of Lincoln's Inn, and spent most of his time in dissipated company. After remaining here a short time, he returned to reside upon his paternal property, where he continued his dissolute habits, and had a quarrel with his uncle. There was a restlessness in his nature, which made strong excitements necessary to him; but he early renounced the vices and follies of his youth, when, at 21, he espoused Elizabeth, daughter of sir James Bourchier, a woman whose conduct was ever irreproachable. His change of character was owing, however, in a great measure, to his close connexion with a religious sect, which afterwards became formidable, in a political view, under the name of Puritans and Independents. At the same time, he became a student of theological and military works. In 1625, he was member of parliament, under the reign of Charles I, from the borough of Huntingdon. Here he saw, with indignation, the abuses of public administration, and, by the persuasion of the famous Hampden and St. John, his relations, took the side of the opposition. Both of them hated the established church, and their sentiments were embraced by Cromwell, whose spirit was early inclined to enthusiasm. His heated imagination often made him believe that he was dying, and the physicians pronounced him a “ vaporous and fanciful hypochondriac." No one but the penetrating Hampden had a correct idea of his great talents. In the parliament of 1628, he distinguished himself by his zeal against popery. After this, he retired to a farm, made restitution of some money that he had won in earlier years by gaining, and, from 1635, devoted himself wholly to agriculture at Ely, where he had inherited an estate. While in this place, he prevented the draining of the fens, and thereby made himself so popular with the

people of the place, that they gave him the title of "lord of the fens." He afterwards patronised this measure during his protectorate. The storm was already at hand which was to shake the repose of England. The king wished to reign without a parliament, and the arbitrary manner in which he imposed taxes, assisted by the prevailing religious feeling and sectarian animosity, inflamed the passions of men, and urged them into political conflict. The opponents of the arbitrary measures of the government had so little idea of the impending convulsion, that several of them were making arrangements to embark, with their families, for New England. Among those already engaged in this scheme were Cromwell, Hampden, Pym, Haselrigg and other men, afterwards so formidable in the revolution; but the government forbade their emigration, as the king was fearful that they would help to widen the breach that already existed between the colonies and the English church. Thus did Charles himself counteract the movements of fortune in his favor. Cromwell returned to Ely, where he lived, for a time, a quiet and pious life. It was at this period that he wrote to his friend St. John, that "he was ready to do and to suffer for the cause of his God." He also held meetings of the sectaries at his house, and not unfrequently preached and prayed himself before them. At length, the king was compelled, by the state of affairs in Scotland, to summon a parliament. Cromwell (who was returned member by the town of Cambridge) and others were so loud in their complaints of abuses in church and state, that Charles prorogued the parliament, but, six months after, November, 1640, was obliged to reassemble it. In this parliament, called the long parliament (from November, 1640, to April, 1653) Croniwell attracted notice chiefly by his rustic and slovenly dress, and by the vehemence of his oratory, often degenerating into coarseness. "That sloven," said Hampden of him, “that sloven hath no ornament in his speech, but he will be the greatest man in England, if we should ever come to a breach with the king." In the declaration of grievances called the Remonstrance, which was passed by a small majority, and which brought on the civil war, Cromwell took an active part. He was at this time a sincere Puritan; but his crafty nature soon led him into the windings of intrigue. On the breaking out of the war in 1642, being appointed captain, and afterwards colonel, he raised a troop of horse composed of