night. It was only on the 13th, that he had delivered a most animated and powerful address to a jury in a cause of the greatest importance and difficulty. An ample and deserved tribute of public respect was paid to his memory. Mr. Eminet was a thorough classical scholar, and conversant with the physical sciences. During his detention at the fortress in Scotland, he wrote part of an Essay towards the History of Ireland, which was printed in New York, in 1807. His private life was irreproachable, his countenance strong and regular, and his frame manly and healthy.

EMPECINADO, THE. (See Diez.) EMPEDOCLES, a Greek philosopher, whose doctrines, in many respects, resembled those of Pythagoras, was born 460 B. C. at Agrigentum, in Sicily. His fellow citizens esteemed him so highly, that they wished to make him king; but, being an enemy to all oppression, and elevation of a few above the rest, he refused the offer, and prevailed on them to abolish aristocracy, and introduce a democratical form of government. The Agrigentines regarded him with the highest veneration, as the restorer and preserver of their liberty, the public benefactor, the great poet, orator and physician, the favorite of the gods, the predicter of future events, and the mighty magician who could stop the course of nature, and overrule the power of death itself. He is said to have thrown himself into the crater of mount Etna, in order to make it believed, by his sudden disappearance, that he was of divine origin. According to others, he was a victim to his rash curiosity, when, in order to examine more accurately the nature of the mountain, and of its fiery eruptions, he went too near the edge of the chasm, and fell in. But it is probable that this is a fiction, as well as the story of Lucian about him, that his sandals were thrown out from the volcano, and thus the manner of his death ascertained, and the people undeceived as to his pretended divinity. Others assert, that he was drowned in his old age. Empedocles presented his philosophy in a poetical dress. His verses are marked by bold and glowing imagery, as well as by harmony and softness. Lucretius was his imitator. The iambic poem on the spheres, formerly ascribed to him, is now considered spurious. The poems of his yet extant have been published together, with a treatise on his life and philosophy, by F. W. Sturz (Leipsic, 1806). Empedocles holds the four elements-earth, water, fire, air-as the

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fundamental and indestructible principles, from whose union and separation every thing that exists is formed. To these material principles are added the ideal principles of friendship and hatred. Domenico Scina has written Memoirs on the Life and Philosophy of Empedocles (Palermo, 1825).

EMPEROR (from the Latin imperator; in German, Kaiser, from Casar*); the title of the highest rank of sovereigns. The word imperator, from imperare, to command, had very different meanings among the Romans at different periods. In the most general sense, it signified the commander of an army, as imperium did the command itself. In early times, consuls were called imperatores before they entered on their office. The soldiers afterwards conferred the title on their general, after a victory, by hailing him imperator; the senate also called a victorious general imperator until he had celebrated his triumph. At a still later period, no one was honored with this title, who had not defeated a hostile army of at least 10,000 men. After the overthrow of the republic, imperator became the title of the rulers, or emperors, and indicated the supreme power; the word rer being too odious to be assumed. Victorious generals were still, however, sometimes saluted with the title imperator, in its original sense. In the time of the republic, the title was put after the name, as Cicero imperator; when it came to signify emperor, it was put before the name, as imperator Claudius. With the destruction of the Roman empire, the title was lost; but it was renewed in 800 A. D., when Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the West. For a long time, the title was considered as belonging to the sovereignty of Rome; hence, on the division of the empire among the sons of Louis-le-Débonnaire, Lothaire, king of Italy, received the title. Charles the Bald, and several princes of Italy, bore it, until Otho I, in 962 A. D., finally united the imperial crown with that of the German kings. Yet it was for many centuries considered necessary to be crowned at Rome in order to be formally invested with the title of emperor.

which in the last ages of the Roman dominion, * Derived from the title of dignity Cesar, denoted only the assistants and successors of the actual emperor. The name Caesar, it is well known, was adopted by the successors of Julius Cesar, as a title of honor, as the brothers of Napoleon were called Napoleon, after having asNapoleon. The Russian Czar (q. v.) is not decended thrones, as Joseph Napoleon, Jerome rived from Cæsar, but is of Slavonic origin.

lation assumed by a sect of physicians, who contended, that all hypothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that observation and experience alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. Empiric, in modern medicine, is applied to a person who sells or administers a particular drug, or compound, as a remedy for a given disorder, without any consideration of its different stages, or degrees of violence, in different constitutions, climates or seasons. (For empiric philosophy, see Experimental Philosophy.)

EMS; a celebrated watering-place in the duchy of Nassau, on the river Lahn. The environs are beautiful. As early as 1583, it was used as a watering-place. The mineral waters at Ems are warmfrom 70° to 118° Fahr.; they are of the saline class, containing large quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used with much effect in chronic catarrhs, pulmonary complaints, diseases of the stomach, arising from phlegm and acidity, gout, and some diseases of the urinary vessels. (See Die Heilquellen zu Ems, Coblentz, 1821, by Vogler.) Near Ems is a grotto, similar to the grotto del cane, near Naples, the vapors from which cause asphyxia. About 50,000 bottles of the water of Ems are sent away annually.

EMULSIONS; a term applied to the imperfect solutions of the fixed vegetable oils in water. They are obtained by rubbing the seeds affording these oils with water, to which a little sugar has been added.

ENAMELING (from enamel, formed by a junction of the inseparable particle en-borrowed by us from the French, who had taken it from the Latin inand the old English word amel, taken from the émail of the French, both signifying the material used in overlaying the variegated works which we call enameled); the art of variegating with colors laid upon or into another body; also, a mode of painting, with vitrified colors, on gold, silver, copper, &c., and of melting these at the fire, or of making curious works in them at a lamp. This art is of so great antiquity, as to render it difficult or impossible to trace it to its origin. It was evidently practised by the Egyptians, from the remains that have been observed on the ornamented envelopes of mummies. From Egypt it passed into Greece, and afterwards into Rome and its provinces, whence it was probably introduced into Great Britain, as various Roman antiquities have been dug up in different parts

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of the island, particularly in the Barrows, in which enamels bave formed portions of the ornaments. The gold cup given by king John to the corporation of Lynn, in Norfolk, proves that the art was known among the Normans, as the sides of the cup are embellished with various figures, whose garments are partly composed of colored enamels. Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and are usually arranged into three classes; namely, the transparent, the semitransparent and opaque. The basis of all kinds of enamel is a perfectly transparent and fusible glass, which is rendered either semitransparent or opaque, by the admixture of metallic oxides. The art of coloring glass seems to be of nearly the same antiquity as the invention of making it; which is proved, not only from written documents, but likewise by the variously colored glass corals, with which several of the Egyptian mummies are decorated. White enamels are composed by melting the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manganese, to increase the brilliancy of the color. The addition of the oxide of lead, or antimony, produces a yellow enamel; but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained from the oxide of silver. Reds are formed by an intermixture of the oxides of gold and iron, that composed of the former being the most beautiful and permanent. Greens, violets and blues are formed from the oxides of copper, cobalt and iron; and these, when intermixed in different proportions, afford a great variety of intermediate colors. Sometimes the oxides are mixed before they are united to the vitreous bases. All the colors may be produced by the metallic oxides. The principal quality of good enamel, and that which renders it fit for being applied on baked earthen ware, or on metals, is the facility with which it acquires lustre by a moderate heat, or cherry-red heat, more or less, according to the nature of the enamel, without entering into complete fusion. Enainels applied to earthen ware and metals possess this quality. Enamels are executed upon the surface of copper and other metals, by a method similar to painting. Enameling on plates of metal, and painting with vitrified colors on glass, are practised with great success in England.

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING (encausticus, Lat.; KavσTIK, Gr.). Painting in encaustic is executed with the operation of fire. Ancient authors often mention this species of painting, which, if it had been described simply by the word encaustic,

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which signifies executed by fire, might be supposed to have been a species of enamel painting. But the expressions encausto pingere, pictura encaustica, ceris pingere, picturam inurere, by Pliny and other ancient writers, show that another species of painting is meant. We have no ancient pictures of this description, and, therefore, the precise manner adopted by the ancients is not completely developed, though many moderns have closely investigated the subject, and described their processes. This species of painting appears to have been practised in the 4th and 5th centuries.* Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a painter, were the first of modern times who made experiments in this branch of art, about the year 1749. Pliny, in a passage relating to encaustic painting, distinguishes three species: 1. that in which the artists used a style, and painted on ivory or polished wood (cestro in ebore), for which purpose they drew the outlines on a piece of the aforesaid wood or ivory, previously soaked or imbued with some color; the point of the style or stigma served for this operation, and the broad end to scrape off the small filaments that arose from the outlines; and they continued forming outlines with the point till they were finished. 2. The next manner appears to have been one in which the wax, previously impregnated with color, was spread over the surface of the picture with the style, and the colors thus prepared were formed into small cylinders for use. By the side of the painter was a brasier for keeping the styles continually hot, with the points of which they laid on the colors when the outlines were finished, and spread them smooth with the broad end; and thus they proceeded till the picture was finished. 3. The third manner of painting was with a pencil, in wax liquefied by fire. By this method the colors acquired a considerable hardness, and could not be damaged, either by the heat of the sun or the effects of sea-water. In this manner ships were painted, with emblems and other pictures, and therefore it obtained the name of ship painting. Few, of late years, have made more experiments in this mode of painting than an English lady, Mrs. Hooker, who, for her very successful exertions in this branch of the polite arts, was presented with a gold palette by

* Vicenzo Requeno has treated the subject in a very masterly and scientific manner, in a work called Saggi sul Ristabilimento dell'antica Arte de Greci e Romani Pittori, published at Parma,

1787.

the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. of London. Her account is printed in the 10th volume of the society's Transactions, for 1792, when she was miss Emma Jane Greenland. This subject has also been deeply investigated by the chevalier Lorgna, in a small but valuable tract, called Un Discorso sulla Cera Punica. As the thing chiefly regarded in encaustic painting was the securing of permanence and durability, by the application of fire, the word encaustic has been applied, in a very general sense, to other processes, in which both the material and the mode of applying the heat are entirely different from the ancient materials and modes. The word has been used, not only of wax-painting on wood, stone and ivory, but also of painting on earthen vessels, of works in metal, where gold and silver were inlaid, melted, or laid on, and of every thing which was gilt or silvered by fire; which was called gold or silver encaustic. The moderns have also used the term for painting on porcelain, and work in enamel; and in the same way it was given to the painting on glass of the middle ages, such as is now seen in the windows of some Gothic churches. It is evident, that all these have nothing to do with the wax-painting of the ancients.

ENCHASING. (See Chasing.)

ENCHORIAL, or ENCHORIC (from the Greek, in, and xp, country.) The Egyptians employed different alphabets in writing-hieroglyphic, hieratic (used by the priests) and enchorial (used for the common purposes of life, and hence called also epistolographic and demotic. (q. v.) Thus, on the Rosetta stone (q. v.), there are three inscriptions, one in the hieroglyphical character, one in what the Greeks called byxwola yoṛpμara, and one in Greek characters. Doctor Thomas Young, in his Egyptian Antiquities (London, 1823, page 9), uses the word enchorial, or enchoric, to designate these popular characters, while M. Champollion calls them demotic. (See Demotic, and Hieroglyphics.)

ENCLAVE; a term used in German and French, to denote a place or country which is entirely surrounded by the territories of another power. Thus several petty duchies and principalities are enclaves of Prussia. It is easy to conceive how much confusion and difficulty in the administration and in the imposition of duties must be caused by such a local situation. It has always been a source of disputes, which have been finally settled by treaties.

ENCLOSURE; a fence, wall or hedge, or other means of protection and security, surrounding land. Countries in general lie open, with nothing but banks and ditches to divide the lands of the husbandien; but in England and the U. States, each farm is divided from others by hedges and fences, and the farms themselves are broken into small enclosures. In France, Germany, Italy, Spain, &c., the lands still remain unenclosed, in large, open fields. Enclosures pleasantly subdivide the labors of the farmer; and, by restraining the exercise of cattle, they occasion them to get fat much sooner.

ENCRATITES; abstinent, or self-denying. (See Gnostics.)

ENCYCLOPEDIA, OF CYCLOPEDIA. This word, formed from the Greek, but not a native compound of that language (which uses instead, ¿ykúndios naideia, naideia év kúkλip, also ¿ykókλia μanuara), originally denoted the whole circle of the various branches of knowledge which were comprehended by the ancients in a liberal education (the artes liberales of the Romans; see Arts). At a later period, the word was applied to every systematic view, either of the whole extent of human knowledge (universal encyclopædia), or of particular departments of it (particular or partial encyclopædia). The want of such general surveys was early felt; and, as knowledge increased, they became still more desirable, partly for the purpose of having a systematic arrangement of the sciences, in their mutual relations, partly for the readier finding of particular subjects; and, for these two reasons, such works were sometimes philosophically, sometimes alphabetically arranged. The spirit of compiling, which prevailed in the Alexandrian school, soon led to attempts remotely allied to this, and Varro and Pliny the elder, among the Romans, composed works of a similar kind (the former in the lost works, entitled Rerum humanarum et divinarum Antiquitates, and Disciplinarum Libri IX, the latter in his Historia naturalis). To these may be added the later collections of Stobæus, and Suidas, and especially of Marcianus Capella. These, however, were only preparatory labors. The honor of undertaking encyclopædias on a regular plan, belongs to the middle ages, which, with iron industry, produced not only a large number of cyclopædias of particular sciences, called Summa, or Specula (e. g. the Summa Theologia of Thomas Aquinas), but also a Universal Encyclopædia, such as had never been seen before. The in

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defatigable Dominican, Vincent of Beauvais (Bellovacensis), about the middle of the 13th century, exhibited the whole sum of the knowledge of the middle ages, in a work of considerable size (Speculum historiale, naturale, doctrinale, to which an anonymous author added, some years later, a Speculum morale, in a similar form), in extracts from the works of the writers of the time;-a real treasure to the inquirer into the literary history of the middle ages, and not without value in itself in many respects (e. g. for the light which it throws on profane criticism). The latest edition was published at Douay, in 4 vols. fol. In the 17th century, the works, by no means without value, of Matthius Martinius, professor and rector in the gymnasium at Bremen (Idea methodica et brevis Encyclopædia sive adumbratio Universitatis, Herborn, 1606), and of John Henry Alstead (Encyclopadia vii Tomis distincta, Herborn, 1620, 2 vols fol.) were followed by those of the illustrious Bacon. In these works, not, indeed, very voluminous, but rich in deep and acute thinking (his Novum Organum Scientiarum, first published, London, 1620, fol.; and De Augmentis Scientiarum, English, London, 1605, 4to., Latin, London, 1638, fol.), he laid the foundation of a cyclopædia full of the most profound inquiries, and the boldest anticipations, which his own age was not capable of understanding. Since his time, a multitude of encyclopædias have appeared, but none of them have the purely scientific design of Bacon, and all relate either to the instruction of the young and uninformed (Chevigny, La Science des Personnes de la Cour, de l'Épée, et de la Robe, 5th ed. by H. P. de Limiers, Amsterdam, 1717, 4 vols.; J. E. Wagenseil, Pera Librorum juvenilium, Altorf, 1695, 5 vols.), or are intended as books of reference for

the learned. Among the greatest works of earlier date would have been reckoned the Galeria de Minerva of Cornelli, had it been completed according to the original plan. It was to have appeared in 45 folio volumes, of which only 7 were published (Venice, 1696). See Keyssler's Travels, vol. i. 1136. More successful, at least in being brought to a completion, was the Grosse vollständige Universallexicon aller Wissenschaften und Künste (Grand Universal Lexicon of all the Arts and Sciences), commonly called Zedler's, from the person who conducted it (Halle and Leipsic, 1732-50, 64 vols.; Supplement, 1751-1754, 4 vols. fol.); but it has, on the whole, little merit, and is successful only in