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25 miles S. S. W. Athens; lon. 23° 35′ E.; lat. 37° 42′ N.

ENGIA, GULF OF (anciently Saronic Gulf); a gulf on S. E. coast of European Turkey, so called from the island situated in it; about 60 miles in length from N. W. to S. E., and 25 in breadth, at the mouth. ENIGMA. (See Enigma.)

ENGLAND; the southern and most considerable division of Great Britain; bounded N. by Scotland, S. by the English channel, which divides it from France, E. by the German ocean, and W. by Wales, the Atlantic ocean, and the Irish channel. It is of a triangular figure, and extends from 50° to 55° 40′ N. lat., and from 1° 50′ E. to 6° W. lon. From N. to S. it is 400 miles in length, and is in some places 300 miles broad. The superficial extent of the country has been variously estimated, from 28,000,000 to 46,000,000 of statute acres. The population of England and Wales appears to have been, from the most accurate computations, about 5,500,000 in the year 1700; in 1750, about 6,500,000; in 1770, about 7,500,000; in 1790, 8,675,000; in 1801,9,168,000; in 1811, 10,488,000; and in 1825, it amounted to 12,422,700. The country is divided into 40 counties, namely, Bedford, Berks, Bucks, Cambridge, Chester, Cornwall, Cumberland, Derby, Devon, Dorset, Durham, Essex, Gloucester, Hereford, Hertford, Huntingdon, Kent, Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln, Middlesex, Monmouth, Norfolk, Northampton, Northumberland, Nottingham, Oxford, Rutland, Salop, Somerset, Southampton, Stafford, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, Warwick, Westmoreland, Wilts, Worcester, York, East, North and West. The counties are subdivided into hundreds, wards, lathes, wapentakes, rapes, tithings, &c.; the whole containing 25 cities, 172 boroughs, and about 10,000 parishes. The aspect of the country is various and delightful. In some parts, verdant plains extend as far as the eye can reach, watered by copious streams, and covered by innumerable cattle. In others, the pleasing vicissitudes of gently-rising hills and bending vales, fertile in corn, waving with wood, and interspersed with meadows, offer the most delightful landscapes of rural opulence and beauty. Some tracts abound with prospects of the more romantic kind-lofty mountains, craggy rocks, deep, narrow dells, and tumbling torrents; nor are there wanting, as a contrast to so many agreeable scenes, the gloomy features of black, barren moors and uncultivated heaths. The native animals of England are the fallow deer,

the dog, the fox, the wild cat, the marten, the foumart, badger, mole, hedgehog, &c. The domestic animals are cattle, horses, goats, sheep and hogs. The wild boar was formerly a native of the country, as also the wolf and the bear, but as the country advanced in improvement, they gradually became extinct. Of the birds, the most remarkable are the eagle, falcons of various species, owls, ravens, carrion crows, rooks, swans, the cuckoo, the cormorant, the nightingale, the peacock, the swallow, the stork, the curlew, the snipe, the plover, the pheasant, the black cock, the ptarmigan (sometimes, but rarely, met with on the lofty mountains of Wales and Cumberland), the grouse, the partridge, the pigeon, the lark, the starling, the thrush, &c. The most considerable rivers are the Thames, Severn, Medway, Trent, Ouse, Tyne, Tees, Wear, Mersey, Dee, Avon, Eden and Derwent. In aid of these, an extensive system of canal navigation has been established (see Canal), by which an easy access is opened into the interior, and the produce of the country transported by an easy and expeditious process, from the most remote parts to the sea. Several beautiful lakes occur in different parts of the country. The most remarkable of these are in the north-west counties, and particularly in Westmoreland and Cumberland. The soil of England is various, consisting generally of clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel and peat. The principal productions of the country are wheat, barley, oats, rye, French wheat, beans and peas. The climate of England, from its northern position, is rather rigorous and ungenial; and, from its being an island, it is liable to sudden and frequent changes, and to great variations of dryness and moisture. It is at all times uncertain; and its atmosphere, being inclined to cold and damp, is on this account not so favorable to the ripening as to the growth of vegetable productions; and in the northern counties, more especially, the harvest is liable to be seriously injured by rain. Owing to its insular situation, however, it is liable to no great extremes either of heat or cold. The general range of the thermometer is from 86 degrees in summer to 16 and 10 in winter. The indigenous fruits are few, and of little value; but others have been introduced, or brought to perfection, by the skill and careful cultivation of the English gardeners. These are chiefly apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots, figs, grapes, and other fruits. Hops are cultivated to a consider

ENGLAND.

able extent in the southern counties. Timber grows abundantly in most parts of the country: the trees are principally oak, elm, ash, beach, alder and willow. The mines and quarries of England afford a constant supply of most valuable produce. Coal is found in great abundance in the northern, and in some of the midland and western counties. Iron abounds in Shropshire, Gloucestershire, Derbyshire, the north of Lancashire, and it is produced, though not in equal abundance, in other counties. Tin is confined to Cornwall and the adjoining parts of Devonshire, and black lead to a small district in Cumberland. Mines of copper are wrought in Cornwall, Devonshire, Derbyshire and Anglesey, and partially in Yorkshire and Staffordshire. In many parts of the kingdom, marbles and freestone, or calcareous sandstone, of various colors and textures, are abundant. There are also mines of rock-salt, pits of fuller's earth, potter's clay, &c. The manufactures of England are of prodigious extent. That of wool is one of the most ancient in the country, and is supposed to have been introduced by the Romans. The annual value of the woollen manufactures is estimated at about 20 millions. The cotton manufacture is of more recent establishment than the woollen, and has been carried to great perfection by the aid of every sort of powerful, complicated and ingenious machinery. The cotton wool imported amounts to about 125 millions of pounds; and the value of cotton manufactures exported, to £20,000,000. The hardware manufactures, of iron and steel, copper and brass, have been also brought to unrivalled perfection in England, and include the most ponderous productions of the casting furnace and rolling mill, as well as the most minute and trifling articles, such as pins, and all sorts of children's toys. The annual value of the iron and steel articles manufactured may be estimated at £10,000,000. The silk and linen manufactures are carried on in England, but not to any great extent. In Nottinghamshire is carried on the manufacture of stockings. English earthenware is finished with beauty and taste, and in great variety, principally at the potteries of Staffordshire; and glass is made in various parts, chiefly in Newcastle, Sunderland, Bristol, and, on a smaller scale, at some other places. China-ware of a very superior quality is made in Derby and Worcester. In London, every sort of fine and elegant manufacture is carried on, such as cutlery, jewelry, articles of

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gold and silver, japan ware, cut glass, cabinet and upholstery work, and gentlemen's carriages, clocks, watches, &c. From the countries in the north of Europe, namely, Denmark, Russia, Sweden, Poland and Prussia, England imports iron, kelp, timber, flax, hemp, coarse linens, pitch, tar, tallow, corn, pearl and potashes, &c.; from Germany, corn, flax, hemp, linens, rags, skins, timber and wines; from Holland, geneva, cheese, butter, rags, flax, hemp, madder, clover and other seeds, corn, bacon, &c.; from France, wines, brandy, lace, cambrie, lawns, silks, trinkets, &c.; and from Spain and Portugal, and Italy, barilla, brimstone, oil, cochineal, fruits, wool, cork, dye-woods, wines, brandy, silk, drugs, gums, &c. The imports from Turkey consist principally of carpets, drugs, dye-stuffs, fruits, silk, &c. From North America are imported flour, provisions, masts, timber, cotton, wool, tobacco, rice, tar, pitch, pot and pearlashes, indigo, furs, &c. From South America, since the emigration of the Portuguese court to the Brazils, are imported cotton, wool, skins, cochineal, logwood, indigo, Brazil wood, sugar, drugs, &c. The articles principally imported from the West Indies are sugars, rum, coffee, pepper, ginger, indigo, drugs and cotton. From the East Indies, China and Persia, are imported teas, spices, raw silk, muslins, nankeens, sugar, indigo, cloves and other spices, opium, quicksilver, drugs, gums, rice, saltpetre, &c. The exports from Britain consist of all the various manufactures: they amount, in official value, to about £37,000,000 annually; the imports to about £25,000,000. In addition to her commerce and manufactures, England has extensive fisheries both at home and abroad. Salmon are caught in most of her rivers, and the seas around her coasts yield herrings, mackerel, pilchards, white fish, oysters, and other shell-fish. The Newfoundland fishery at one time employed a considerable number of vessels; but it has since fallen off. The whale fishery, both in the North and South seas, is prosecuted to a considerable extent. The established religion of England is Episcopacy. The Episcopal establishment of England consists of the 2 archbishops of Canterbury and York, and of 24 bishops, who have the privilege of a seat in the house of peers. There is also the bishop of Sodor and Man, who is not possessed of this privilege. The constitution of England is a limited monarchy. The executive powers are vested in the king, who acts through the medium of responsible advisers. The

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ENGLAND-CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

legislative power resides in the king, lords and commons. (For the history, constitution, &c. of England, see Great Britain.) ENGLAND, CHURCH OF. The establish ed religion in England is Episcopacy. The king is the supreme head; by this authority he convenes and prorogues the convocations of the clergy. The church is governed by 2 archbishops and 25 bishops. The archbishop of Canterbury is styled the primate of all England, and to him belongs the privilege of crowning the kings and queens of England. The province of Canterbury comprehends 21 bishoprics. In the province of the archbishop of York, who is called the primate of England, there are 4 bishoprics. Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the king, by what is called a congé d'élire, or leave to elect, which is sent to the dean and chapter naming the person to be chosen. The bishop of London, as presiding over the capital, has the precedence of all the others. The bishop of Durham has certain prerogatives, as presiding over a see that constitutes a county palatine; the bishop of Winchester is third in dignity; the others take rank according to seniority of consecration. The archbishops and bishops (except the bishop of Sodor and Man) have seats in the house of lords, and are styled the spiritual lords. The archbishops have the title of grace, and most reverend father in God, by divine providence; bishops are addressed by the title of lord, and right reverend father in God, by divine permission. The former are said to be enthroned, the latter installed. To every cathedral belong several prebendaries and a dean, who form the dean and chapter, or council of the bishop. The next order of the clergy is that of archdeacons; their number is 60; their office is to reform abuses, and to induct into benefices. The most numerous and laborious order of the clergy are the deacons, curates, vicars and rectors. The office of the deacon is confined to baptism, reading in the church, and assisting the priest at the communion. A parson is one who has full possession of all the rights of a parish church; if the great tithes are impropriated, the priest is called a vicar; if not, a rector: a curate is one who is not instituted to the cure of souls, but exercises the spiritual office in a parish under a rector or vicar. (For the annual expenses of the church of England, see Ecclesiastical Establishments.) The convocation of the clergy, which is the highest ecclesiastical court, has not been permitted by government to do any business since 1717, and

is merely convened as a matter of form. The doctrines of the church of England are contained in the thirty-nine articles: the form of worship is directed by a liturgy. The first steps to the establishment of the English church were slow. It retained at first many of the features of the Roman church, both in regard to doctrine and rites. After the parliament had declared Henry VIII the only supreme head of the church, and the convocation of the clergy had voted that the bishop of Rome had no more jurisdiction in England than any other foreign bishop, the articles of faith of the new church were declared to consist in the Scriptures and the three creeds, the Apostolic, the Nicene and the Athanasian (see Creeds); the real presence, the use of images, the invocation of saints, &c., were still maintained. Under Edward, the new liturgy was composed in English, and took the place of the old mass; the doctrines were also stated in forty-two articles. With the reign of Mary, the old religion was reestablished; and it was not till that of Elizabeth that the church of England was finally instituted. As no change was made in the episcopal form of government, and some rites and ceremonies were retained, which many of the reformed considered as superstitious, this circumstance gave rise to many future dissensions. The controversy concerning the ceremonial part of divine worship commenced with those exiles, who, in 1554, fled from the persecutions of queen Mary, and took refuge in Germany. On the accession of Elizabeth, they returned, and renewed the contest at home, which had begun abroad. These were called Puritans, and, at one time, comprised many distinguished members of the English clergy. (See Puritans.) On the accession of James, the Puritans hoped for some relief; but an Episcopal hierarchy was more favorable to his views than the Presbyterian form of government, and he publicly adopted the maxim "No bishop, no king." When the English divines returned from the synod of Dort, the king and the majority of the Episcopal clergy discovered an inclination to the sentiments of Arminius, which have since prevailed over Calvinism among the English clergy. Under Charles I, the attempts made, through the instrumentality of Laud, to reduce all the churches of Great Britain under the jurisdiction of bishops, and the suppression of the opinions and institutions that were peculiar to Calvinism, cost the archbishop of Canterbury his head, and had no little effect in imbittering the civil contest be

CHURCH OF ENGLAND.

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In

tween the throne and the parliament. the Apostles', Nicene and Athanasian After the death of Laud, the parliament creeds. The 9th and following articles abolished the Episcopal government, and contain the doctrine of original sin, of condemned every thing in the ecclesias- justification by faith alone, of predestinatical establishment that was contrary to tion, &c. The 19th, 20th and 21st dethe doctrine, worship and discipline of the clare the church to be the assembly of the church of Geneva. As soon as Charles II faithful; that it can decide nothing except was restored to the throne, the ancient by the Scriptures. The 22d rejects the forms of ecclesiastical government and doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the public worship were restored; and, in adoration of images, and the invocation of 1662, a public law, entitled the act of uni- saints. The 23d decides that only those formity, was enacted, by which all who re- lawfully called shall preach or administer fused to observe the rites and subscribe the sacraments. The 24th requires the the doctrines of the church of England, liturgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th were entirely excluded from its dominion. declare the sacraments effectual signs of In the reign of William III, and particu- grace (though administered by evil men), larly in 1689, the divisions among the by which God excites and confirms our friends of Episcopacy gave rise to the two faith. They are two; baptism and the parties called the high-churchmen, or non-ju- Lord's supper. Baptism, according to rors, and low-churchmen. The former main- the 27th article, is a sign of regeneration, tained the doctrine of passive obedience, the seal of our adoption, by which faith or non-resistance to the sovereign under is confirmed and grace increased. any circumstance whatever; that the he- the Lord's supper, according to article reditary succession to the throne is of 28th, the bread is the communion of the divine institution, and cannot be interrupt- body of Christ, the wine the communion ed; that the church is subject to the juris- of his blood, but only through faith (art. diction of God alone; and, consequently, 29th); and the communion must be adthat certain bishops deposed by king ministered in both kinds (art. 30). The William, remained, notwithstanding, true 28th article condemns the doctrine of bishops; and that those who had been ap- transubstantiation, and the elevation and pointed in their places were rebels and adoration of the host; the 31st rejects schismatics, and all who held communion the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; with them were guilty of rebellion and the 32d permits the marriage of the schism. The gradual progress of civil clergy; the 33d maintains the efficacy and religious liberty, during the last 150 of excommunication. The remaining years, has settled practically many such articles relate to the supremacy of the controversies. The great increase of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists dissenters in recent times (they are es- (q. v.), &c. timated to be more numerous than the members of the established church) has led to new concessions in their favor; the repeal of the corporation and test acts (q. v.), and the Catholic emancipation (q. v.), as it is called, are among the important events of the late reign. We have said, that the doctrines of the church of England are contained in the thirty-nine articles; we are not ignorant that the most eminent English divines have doubted whether they are Calvinistic or Lutheran, that some have denominated them articles of peace, and that not a few have written in direct opposition to them. they are the established confession of the English church, and, as such, deserve a short analysis. The 5 first articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus Christ, his descent to hell, and his resurrection; the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The 3 following relate to the canon of the ScripThe 8th article declares a belief in

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In the U. States, the members of the church of England, or Episcopalians, form a large and respectable denomination. When the revolutionary war began, there were only about eighty parochial clergymen of this church to the northward and eastward of Maryland; and they derived the greater part of their subsistence from the English society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts. In Maryland and Virginia, the Episcopal church was much more numerous, and had legal establishments for its support. The inconvenience of depending on the mother church for ordination, and the want of an internal Episcopacy, was long severely felt by the American Episcopalians. But their petitions for an Episcopate of their own were long resisted by their superiors in England; and their opponents in the U. States objected to the measure from an apprehension that bishops from England would bring with them an authority which would interfere with the civil institutions

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CHURCH OF ENGLAND-ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

of this country, and be prejudicial to the members of other communions. After the U. States had become independent of Great Britain, a new difficulty arose on the part of the English bishops: they could not consistently depart from their own stated forms of ordination, and these contained political tests improper for American citizens to subscribe. Doctor Lowth, then bishop of London, obtained an act of parliament allowing him to dispense with these political requisitions. Before this act was passed, doctor Seabury was consecrated at Aberdeen by the non-juring bishops of Scotland; and, not long after, doctor White of Philadelphia, doctor Provost of New York, and doctor Madison of Virginia, were consecrated by the English archbishops. In 1824, there were in the U. States 10 bishops, about 350 clergymen, and upwards of 600 congregations. (See bishop White's Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States, Philadelphia, 1820; also the article Church of England in Rees' Cyclopædia.)

ENGLISH CHANNEL (called by the French la Manche) is that part of the Atlantic ocean which lies between the north-west coast of France and the southern coast of England. Its eastern extremity is connected with the German ocean by the straits of Calais, and on the west it is imperceptibly confounded with the Atlantic ocean. It lies between lat. 48° 38′ and 51° N., and lon. 1° 20′ E. and 5° 43′ W. At its termination-on a line drawn from Land's End to the extreme easterly point of the department of Finisterre, in France -it is about 40 leagues wide. On the French coast, it forms three considerable bays; the most easterly receives the Somme; the second receives the Seine and several smaller rivers; the third and largest lies on the south-west of the peninsula of Cotentin. On the English coast, is Mount bay, between Lizard point and Land's End; between Lizard point and Start point is a large gulf, on which are situated Falmouth and Plymouth; the gulf of Exeter lies to the east of Start point. The principal islands in the English channel are the Isle of Wight on the English coast, and the Norman islands lying on the French coasts, but belonging to England, the principal of which are Guernsey and Jersey. The prevailing winds are from the west. The channel, being shallow and confined, is subject, from its communication with the Atlantic, to high and impetuous tides. Its waters contain many fish, of which the most im

portant are the mackerel and the herring. The oysters of Cancal are also famous.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE; the language spoken by the people of England, and, with some dialectical variations, in Scotland, in a part of Ireland, and in other parts of the globe which now are, or originally were, within the British dominions. Of all who speak the English language, the people of the U. States of America, next to the inhabitants of England itself, are the most important in respect to their influence in spreading and cultivating it. Their very extensive commerce, which is now second to none but that of England, affords the means of contributing to the dissemination of their language over all parts of the globe. To this also we may add their efforts in religious missions, which have been attended with a similar effect. From these and other causes, we have the highest reason to believe that English will, before the lapse of many years, be spoken as the native tongue of a larger proportion of the inhabitants of the two continents than any other known language, unless, perhaps, the Chinese and its dialects should still maintain that rank. The Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon (q. v.) language, as it is more frequently called, was the basis of the English; and both have descended from what is commonly denominated the Gothic or Teutonic stock, particularly the dialect called Low German. (q. v.) It has, however, retained many words of the ancient language spoken by the Britons before the arrival of the Saxons among them. Upon the introduction of Christianity into Great Britain, in the 6th century, which was done through the church of Rome, the Latin language contributed, by degrees, to the common dialect of the nation. About the year 1150, according to doctor Johnson, the Saxon dialect of our ancestors took a form in which the beginning of our present English can plainly be discovered. From that period to this, it has been constantly receiving additions from various languages, and may now, according to doctor Webster, be considered as composed of, 1st, Saxon and Danish words of Teutonic and Gothic origin; 2d, British or Welsh, Cornish and Armoric, which may be considered as of Celtic origin; 3d, Norman; 4th, Latin; 5th, French; 6th, Greek; 7th, a few words directly from the Italian, Spanish, German, and other languages of the continent of Europe; 8th, a few foreign words, introduced by commerce or by political and literary intercourse. (Introd. Eng. Dict.) This origin of our

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