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Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria. In the computation of Alexandria, the creation was considered to be 5502 years before Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 A. D. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 A. D.), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. This is still used by the Abyssinians. The era of Antioch considered the creation to be 5492 years before Christ, and, therefore, the year 285 A. D. was 5777. As this was equal to the date of Alexandria, the two eras, from this time, were considered as one. Dates of the Alexandrian era are reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. In the era of Antioch, 5492 are always subtracted.

The Abyssinian Era. The Abyssinians reckon their years from the creation, which they place in the 5493d year before our era*, on the 29th of August, old style; and their dates will consequently exceed ours by 5492 years and 125 days. They have 12 months of 30 days each, and 5 days added to the end, called pagomen, from the Greek word inayopevai (added). Another day is added at the end of every 4th year. To know which year is leap year, divide the date by 4, and if 3 remain, the year will be leap year. It always precedes the Julian leap year by 1 year and 4 months. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub

Year of the cycle.

The

tract 5492 years and 125 days. Abyssinians also use the era of Martyrs, or Diocletian, with the same months as in the above.

The Jewish Era. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucides, until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. Some insist strongly on the antiquity of their present era; but it is generally believed not to be more ancient than the century above named. They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of our era. Their year is luni-solar, consisting either of 12 or 13 months each, and each month of 29 or 30 days. The civil year commences with or immediately after the new moon following the equinox of autumn. The average length of the year of 12 months is 354 days; but, by varying the length of the months Marchesvan and Chisleu, it may consist of 353 or 355 days also. In the same manner, the year of 13 months may contain 383, 384, or 385 days. In 19 years, 12 years have 12 months each, and 7 years 13 months. The following table of 19 years will show the number of months in each year, as well as the first day of their year, reduced to the new style. The first day will not always be quite accurate, as certain lucky and unlucky days require the postponement of a day in some years. The year must be divided by 19, and the remainder will show the year of the cycle. If there be no remainder, it is the 19th year.

The 1st begins about the 2d of October, and consists of
22d of September,.

Months. 12

2d

3d

10th

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The Abyssinians place the birth of Christ in the 5500th year of the creation, and conse quently eight years after our era.

EPOCH.

To reduce the Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761, and the remainder will show the year: the beginning of the year may be ascertained by the above table, and the months must be counted from that time. The ecclesiastical year begins six months earlier, with the month of Nisan. Consequently, when the given year is ecclesiastical, deduct a year in the date from Nisan to Elul, inclusive. The Jews frequently, in their dates, leave out the thousands, which they indicate by placing the letters pab meaning open "according to the lesser computation." It will be unnecessary to mention the various other epochs that have taken place from the creation, as those detailed or referred to are the only ones that have been in general use.

The Era of Nabonassar received its name from that of a prince of Babylon, under whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in Chaldæa. The years are vague, containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was Wednes‹lay,* February 26th, 747 B. C. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the given year, if before Christ, from 748, and if after Christ, add it to 747.

The Egyptian Era. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, beginning on the 26th February, 747 B. C., and consisting of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 years before Christ, at which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding, to the 29th of August, which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. Their years and months coincide exactly with those of the era of Diocletian. It appears from a calculation, that, in 30 B. C., the year must have begun on the 31st of August; in which case we must suppose the reformation to have taken place eight years earlier: however that may be, it is certain, that the 29th of Angust was the day adopted, and the number of the year one more than would have resulted from taking 747 as the commencement of the era. To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days. The old Egyptian year was in use for above a century after Christ; the reformed year being at first used only by the Alexandrians.

The Julian Period is a term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman

This is said, by mistake, to be Thursday, in L'Art de vérifier les Dates.

551

indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in computing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras used at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found. If before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714.

The Era of Diocletian, called also the Era of Martyrs, was much used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day* when Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. Ît is called the Era of Martyrs, from the persecution of the Christians in the reign of Diocletian. The year consists of 365 days, with an additional day every fourth year. Divide the date by 4, and if 3 remain, the year is bissextile. It contains 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 additional in cominon years, and 6 in leap years. To reduce the years of this era to those of the Christian, add 283 years 240 days. When the Diocletian year is the year after leap year, it begins one day later than usual, and, in consequence, one day must be added to the Christian year, from the 29th of August to the end of the following February.

The Grecian Era, or Era of the Seleucides, dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator, 311 years and 4 months before Christ. It was used in Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and by some Arabians to this day. The Syrian Greeks began their year about the commencement of September; other Syrians in October, and the Jews about the autumnal equinox. We shall not pretend to great accuracy in this era, the opinions of authors being very various as to its commencement. It is used in the book of the Maccabees, and appears to have begun with Nisan. Their year was solar, and consisted of 365 days, with the addition of a day every fourth year. To reduce it to our era, supposing it to begin 1st September, 312 B. C., subtract 311 years and 4 months.

The Death of Alexander the Great dates from the 12th of November, 324 B. C.,† * Diocletian was not, in reality, proclaimed until some months after this time.

This would be more accurately 323 B. C., but the above date is more usually adopted.

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on which day the 425th year of Nabonassar began. This era was computed by years of 365 days, with a leap year of 366 every four years, like the Julian year. The months were of 30 days each, with 5 additional. To compute it, deduct 323 from the given year, and the remainder will be the year of the Christian era. If before Christ, deduct the year from 324.

The Era of Tyre began the 19th of October, 125 B. C., with the month Hyperberetæus. The months were the same as those used in the Grecian era. The year is similar to the Julian. To reduce it to our era, subtract 124; and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ.

The Casarean Era of Antioch was used in Syria, by Greeks and Syrians. The months are the same as those given under the Grecian era. The Greeks began with Gorpiæus, September, in the year 49 B. C., and the Syrians with Tishri I, October, of 48 B. Č.

The Era of Abraham is used by Eusebius, and begins the 1st of October, 2016 B. C. To reduce this to the Christian era, subtract 2015 years 3 months, and the remainder will be the year and. month.

The Spanish Era, or Era of the Cæsars, is reckoned from the 1st of January, 38 years B. C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain and the south of France. By a synod held in 1180, its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John I of Castile did the same in 1382. It continued to be used in Portugal until 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with those of the Julian calendar; and, consequently, to turn this time into that of our era, we have only to subtract 38 from the year. Thus the Spanish year 750 is equal to the Julian 712. If the year be before the Christian era, subtract it from 39.

The Era of Yezdegird III, or the Persian Era, was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began on the 16th of June, A. D. 632. The year consisted of 365 days only, and, therefore, its commencement, like that of the old Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This

difference amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered, that, in future, the Persian year should receive an additional day whenever it should appear necessary to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. This took place generally once in 4 years; but, after seven or eight intercalations, it was postponed for a year. It will be observed, that such an arrangement must be perfect, and that this calendar could never require reformation; but it has the inconvenience of making it very difficult to determine beforehand the length of any given year, as well as that of causing a difference occasionally in the computation of persons living under different meridians; those living towards the East sometimes beginning their year a day after others more westwardly situate; the sun rising in the old sign to those in the former situation, who consequently continued in the old year another day; while the others, haring their sun rise in the new sign, began a new year. The present practice of the Parsees in India varies in different provinces, some beginning the year in September, and others in October. months have each 30 days, and the intercalation of 5 or 6 days occurs at the end of Aban. To reduce this era to the Christian year, add 630 to the given year, and the sum will be the year of our era in which the year begins, according to the practice of the Parsees. Every day of

The

the Persian month has a different name. The Era of the Armenians. The Armenians began their era on Tuesday, the 9th of July, A. D. 552. Their year consists of 365 days only, and therefore anticipates the Julian one day in every four years. The Armenian ecclesiastical year begins on the 11th of August, and has an additional day at the end of every fourth year; and consequently coincides in division with the Julian year. To reduce ecclesiastical Armenian years to our time, add 551 years and 222 days. In leap years, subtract one day from March 1 to August 10.-The Armenians frequently use the old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans.

For the French Revolutionary Calendar see Calendar, vol. 2, page 403. As this plan lasted so short a time, it will take less space to insert a table of years corresponding with the Christian era, than to give a rule for the deduction of one era from another.

1 1792-3 2 1793-4 3 1794-5 4 1795-6 5 1796-7 6 1797-8

7 1798-9

EPOCH.

8 1799-1800 9 1800-1801 10 1801-2 11 1802-3 12 1803-4 13 1804-5 14 1805-6 The Mohammedan Era, or Era of the Hegira, dates from the flight of Mohammed to Medina, which event took place in the night of Thursday, the 15th of July, A. D. 622. The era commences on the following day, viz., the 16th of July. Many chronologists have computed this era from the 15th of July, but Cantemir has given examples, proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of the era; and now there can be no question, that such is the practice of Mohammedans. The year is purely lunar, consisting of 12 months, each month commencing with the appearance of the new moon, without any intercalation to bring the commencement of the year to the same season. It is obvious, that, by such an arrangement, every year will begin much earlier in the season than the preceding, being now in summer, and, in the course of 16 years, in winter. Such a mode of reckoning, so much at variance with the order of nature, could scarcely have been in use beyond the pastoral and semi-barbarous nation by whom it was adopted, without the powerful aid of fanaticism; and even that has not been able to prevent the use of other methods by learned men in their computations, and by governments in the collection of revenue. It will also be remarked, that, as the Mohammedans begin each month with the appearance of the new moon, a few cloudy days might retard the commencement of a month, making the preceding month longer than usual. This, in fact, is the case, and two parts of the saine country will sometimes differ a day in consequence; although the clear skies of those countries where Islamisin prevails rarely occasion much inconvenience on this head. But in chronology and history, as well as in all documents, they use months of 30 and 29 days, alternately, making the year thus to consist of 354 days: eleven times in 30 years, one day is added to the last month, making 355 days in that year. Consequently the average length of a year is taken at 354 days, the 12th of which is 29, differing from the true lunation very little more than 3 seconds, which will not amount to a day in less than 2260 years-a degree of exactness which could not have been attained without long continued observa47

VOL. IV.

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tions. The intercalary year of 355 days occurs on the 2d, 5th, 7th, 10th, 13th, 15th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 26th, and 29th years of every 30 years. Any year being given, to know whether it be intercalary or not, divide by 30, and if either of the above numbers remain, the year will be one of 355 days. To reduce the year of the Hegira to that of the Christian, the following mode, though not strictly accurate, is sufficiently so for most purposes. The Mohammedan year being a lunar year of 354 days, 33 such years will make 32 of ours. We have only, then, to deduct one year for each 33 in any given number of Mohammedan years, and add 622 (the year of our era, from which their computation commences), and we obtain the corresponding year of the Christian era.

Indian Chronology. The natives of India use a great variety of epochs, some of which are but little understood, even by themselves, and almost all are deficient in universality and uniformity, so that the same epoch, nominally, will be found to vary many days, or even a year, in different provinces. The solar, or, more properly, the sidereal year, is that which is most in use for public business, particularly since the introduction of European power into India. This year is calculated by the Indian astronomers at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds, or, according to others, 36 seconds. Therefore, in 60 Indian years, there will be a day more than in 60 Gregorian years. The difference arises from not taking into consideration the precession of the equinoxes, which is equal, in reality, to something more than 20 minutes, though by them calculated at 23 minutes. The lunisolar computation is not at present so common as it formerly was, although still much used in some parts of India, and common every where in the regulation of festivals, and in domestic arrangements. Both the solar and luni-solar forms may be used with most of the Indian eras, though some more particularly affect one form and some the other. The luni-solar mode varies in different provinces, some beginning the month at full moon, others at new moon. We shall describe that beginning by the full moon, which is used in Bengal; the other method will be easily understood when this is known. Each year begins on the day of full moon preceding the beginning of the solar year of the same date. The months are divided into halves, the first of which is entitled badi, or dark, being from the

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The Era of Vicramaditya, which has its name from a sovereign of Malwa, inay also be placed here, as it uses the same months as the two above mentioned; but it is more generally used with lunar time. This era is much employed in the north of India, and its years are called Samvat. It began 57 years before Christ; and that number must be deducted to bring it to our era. In Guzerat, this era is used, but it begins there about the autumnal equinox. The months all begin on the days of the entrance of the sun into a sign of the Hindoo zodiac, and they vary from 29 to 32 days in length, though making up 365 days in the total, in common years, and 366 in leap years. The intercalation is made when and where it is required, not according to any arbitrary rule, but by continuing the length of each month until the sun has completely passed each sign. This will bring about 26 leap years in every century. It would require long and complicated calculations to find exactly the commencement and duration of each month, but we shall not err more than a day or two by considering them to be of 30 and 31 days alternately.

full moon to the new; and the last, sudi, be added to find the equivalent year of or bright, from new to full moon. These the Christian era. Both these eras are divisions are sometimes of 14 and somemost commonly used with solar time. times of 15 days, and are numbered generally from 1 to 15, though the last day of the badi half is called 15, and that of sudi is called 30. By a complicated arrangement, a day is sometimes omitted, and again a day is intercalated, so that, instead of going on regularly in numerical order, these days may be reckoned 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10. The subject is enveloped in some obscurity; and it will be, perhaps, sufficient to observe, that the time of a lunation is divided into 30 parts, called tiths, and, when two tiths occur in the same solar day, that day is omitted in the lunar reckoning, and restored by intercalation at some other period. When two full moons occur in one solar month, the month also is named twice, making a year of 13 months. In the case, also, of a short solar month, in which there should be no full moon, the month would be altogether omitted. All these circumstances render the luni-solar computation a matter of much difficulty; and to reduce it exactly to our era, would require a perfect knowledge of Hindoo astronomy. But as the solar reckoning is by far the most general, we shall only observe, that the lunar month precedes the solar month by a lunation at most; and consequently a lunar date may be nearly known from the solar time, which is of easy calculation. The eras which are generally known are the following:

The Caliyug. This era is the most ancient of India, and dates from a period 3101 years before Christ. It begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, which is now on the 11th of April, N. S. In the year 1600, the year began on the 7th of April, N. S., from which it has now advanced 4 days, and, from the precession of the equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 60 years. The number produced by subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Caliyug will be the Christian year in which the given year begins.

The Era of Salivahana may be joined here to that of the Caliyug, being identical with it as to names of months, divisions and commencement, and differing only in the date of the year, which is 3179 years more recent than that, and therefore 77 years since our era. It is much used in the southern and western provinces of India, and papers are frequently dated in both eras. The years of this era are called Saca. The number 77 must

The Bengalee year appears to have been once identical with the Hegira; but the solar computation having subsequently been adopted, of which the years exceed those of the Hegira by 11 days, it has lost nearly 11 days every year, and is now about 9 years later, the year 1245 of the Hegira beginning in July, 1829, and the Bengalee year 1236 beginning 13th of April of the same year. The number 593 must be added to bring this to the Christian era.

The Chinese, like all the nations of the north-east of Asia, reckon their time by cycles of 60 years. Instead of numbering them as we do, they give a different name to every year in the cycle. As all those nations follow the same system, we shall detail it here more particularly. They have two series of words, one of ten, and the other of twelve words; a combination of the first words in both orders is the name of the first year; the next in each series are taken for the second year; and so to the tenth in the eleventh year, the series of ten being exhausted, they begin again with the first, combining it with the eleventh of the second series; in the twelfth year, the second word of the first series is combined with the twelfth of the second; for the thirteenth year,

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