pulse. In an advanced stage of the disease, respiration becomes more stridulous, and is performed with still greater difficulty, being repeated at longer periods, and with greater exertions, until, at last, it ceases entirely. The croup frequently proves fatal by suffocation, induced either by spasm affecting the glottis, or by a quantity of matter blocking up the air passages; but when it terminates in health, it is by a resolution of the inflammation, by a ceasing of the spasms, and by a free expectoration of the matter exuding from the trachea, or of the crusts formed there. The disease has, in a few instances, terminated fatally within 24 hours after its attack; but it more usually happens, that where it proves fatal, it runs on to the 4th or 5th day. Where considerable portions of the membranous films, formed on the surface of the trachea, are thrown up, life is sometimes protracted for a day or two longer than would otherwise have happened. Dissections of children, who have died of the croup, have mostly shown a preternatural membrane, lining the whole internal surface of the upper part of the trachea, which may always be easily separated from the proper membrane. There is likewise usually found a good deal of mucus, with a mixture of pus, in the windpipe and its ramifications. The treatment of this disease must be conducted on the strictly antiphlogistic plan. It will commonly be proper, where the patient is not very young, to begin by taking blood from the arm or the jugular vein; several leeches should be applied along the fore part of the neck. It will then be right to give a nauseating emetic, ipecacuanha with tartarized antimony, or with squill, in divided doses; this may be followed up by cathartics, diaphoretics, digitalis, &c. Large blisters ought to be applied near the affected part, and a discharge kept up by savin cerate, or other stimulant dressing. Mercury, carried speedily to salivation, has in several instances arrested the progress of the disease, when it appeared proceeding to a fatal termination. As the inflammation is declining, it is very important that free expectoration should take place. This may be promoted by nauseating medicines, by inhaling steam, and by stimulating gargles, for which the decoction of seneka is particularly recommended. Where there is much wheezing, an occasional emetic may relieve the patient considerably, and, under symptoms of threatening suffocation, the operation of bronchotomy has sometimes saved life. Should fits of spasmodic difficulty of

breathing occur in the latter periods of the disease, opium, joined with diaphoretics, would be most likely to do good. Napoleon, on the occasion of the death of his nephew, the prince of Holland, of this disease, offered a premium of 12,000 francs for the best treatise on the croup. Of 83 essays, which were presented to the committee of 12 members assembled for the examination at Paris, in 1811, two were acknowledged as the best, one by Iurine, in Geneva, and the other by Albers, of Bremen, between whom the prize was divided.

CROUSAZ, John Peter de, a celebrated mathematician and philosopher, was born at Lausanne, in 1660. He early distinguished himself by his progress in mathematics and philosophy, under able professors at Geneva and Lausanne, applying himself particularly to the writings of Descartes. In 1682, he went to the university of Leyden, and thence proceeded to Paris, where he became acquainted with the celebrated father Malebranche, who, with other celebrated men, vainly endeavored to convert him to the Catholic religion. On returning to his native country, he was ordained minister, appointed honorary professor, and remained pastor of the church at Lausanne. In 1699, he was made professor of Greek and of philosophy in the academy of Lausanne, appointed rector in 1706, and again in 1722. In 1724, he was chosen mathematical and philosophical professor at the university at Groningen. In 1732, he was nominated counsellor of embassies to the king of Sweden, and, in 1737, elected professor of philosophy and mathematics at Lausanne. His works are distinguished for learning, liberality and acuteness. principal are, A System of Reflections that may contribute to the Illustration and Extension of Knowledge, or a new Essay on Logic (in 6 vols., 12mo., 1741); Summa Logica (1724); a Treatise on Education; Examen du Pyrrhonisme ancien et moderne; Géométrie des Lignes et des Surfaces rectilignes et circulaires; Examen de l'Essai de M. Pope; Commentaire sur la Traduction de l'Essai de M. Pope, de l'Abbé du Resnel; Traité du Beau; a Treatise on the Human Understanding.

The

CROW (corvus, L.); a genus of birds remarkable for their gregarious and predatory habits, distinguished by the following characters: The bill is straight, convex and compressed, being covered at its base by incumbent, bristly feathers; the upper mandible is curved at tip, the lower is a little shorter, carinated on both sides, and

slightly ascending at the extremity; the nostrils are placed on the base of the bill, and are patulous, though covered by the incumbent feathers; the tongue is short, cartilaginous, acute and bifid at tip; the tarsus scarcely exceeds the middle toe in length; the toes are separated almost to the base, and the middle one is the longest; the nails are moderate, pointed, hollow beneath, and sharp-edged, the hind one being generally longest; the wings are subelongated, acute, the first primary short, third or fourth longest; the tail consists of twelve feathers. Four species of this genus, as at present restricted, are found in North America-the raven (C. corax); the crow (C. corone); fish-crow (C. ossifragus); and Clark's crow (C. columbianus). These and other members of the genus are very extensively spread over the globe, and are almost equally distinguished for their remarkable sagacity, and the amount of mischief which they occasion where they are very numerous. The raven is by no means common in the Middle States of the Union, but is found in considerable numbers, in the vicinity of the northern lakes, and the interior of the Union. This is the largest species of its tribe, very little inferior in size to a common cock, being 26 inches in length, and more than 3 feet from the tip of one wing to that of the other. The plumage is of a very glossy black, with some reflections of bluish purple on the back. The female is less purely black than the male, and a little smaller. The raven, when on the ground, marches at a grave and stately pace: his favorite haunts are the vast solitudes of rocks and forests, whence he seldom emerges except called by hunger, and then never in large flocks, like the crows. The ordinary food of the raven, and that which he prefers, is putrefying animal matter, which this bird discovers, by the acuteness of his sense of smelling, at great distances, and flies to the feast with unerring precision. When carrion is not attainable, the raven feeds on various fruits, insects, dead fish, &c. Judging by the habits of the crow and other kindred species, there is no question but the raven, when pressed by hunger, will kill small birds or other animals coming within its reach. They have been known to pluck the eyes out of the heads of lambs and sick animals unable to drive them away. Birds so voracious and destructive cannot be regarded otherwise than injurious in a poor country, though in a rich one, their services, as scavengers and destroyers of the larves of noxious insects,

ness.

might more than counterbalance their mischief.* Like most of their tribe, ravens have a considerable talent for imitating sounds, and may be taught to pronounce words with remarkable distinctWhen domesticated, they become very bold and impudent, fearless of dogs or cats, and fighting fiercely with them when provoked: sometimes, indeed, their insolence renders them dangerous inmates," as they will wound children, and even grown persons, with their powerful bill. They also participate in the disposition common to most of their fraternity, to steal and hide pieces of money, plate, and other shining objects, which cannot be of the slightest use to the purloiner. The raven is a model of conjugal fidelity, having but one female, to whom he remains attached, most probably, for life. Observations were made on one pair by lord Ross, during 30 years, and there can be but little doubt, that the union was only interrupted by death. Their nests are commonly placed in chinks of rocks, lofty old walis, or the tops of tall, insulated trees, and are made externally of roots and branches of shrubs; a second layer is then formed of animal bones, or other hard materials, and this is covered with a bed of soft grass or moss. About the month of March, the female lays 5 or 6 palegreen and bluish eggs, speckled with very numerous spots and touches of a darker color. The incubation continues for 20 days, and both parents participate in it. The male also defends the nest courageously against the approach of hawks and other birds of prey, and provides for the subsistence of his companion. The young remain with the parents throughout the summer succeeding their hatching, and, when able to provide for themselves, are sent off to establish new colonies elsewhere. The flight of the raven is very lofty, and its power of wing great, so that it is able to pass over immense spaces in a short time. Few birds are more numerous and annoying to the farmers of the Atlantic States than the common crow (C. corone), which, throughout a considerable part of the year, collects in astonishingly large flocks, and makes destructive descents upon newly-planted maize and other grain. In this species, it seems as if all the evil propensities of the race were united and augmented. Exceedingly cunning in de

* In England, the rook (C. frugilegus) is not allowed to be killed, and a large rookery is considered a valuable appendage to an estate. The young are obtained from the nest, and considered very fine for the table.

tecting every contrivance intended for their destruction, they are rarely destroyed to any great extent, except in seasons of excessive and long-protracted cold weather. Then (as during the winter of 1828-9) vast numbers perish from starvation, since, the earth, brooks, rivers and bays being completely locked up, all their sources of supply are cut off. At such times, their hunger is so distressing as to force them to the most extraordinary exertions, and they devour substances, which nothing but excessive hunger could induce any animal to swallow. During the hard winter alluded to, immense flocks were observed passing from the direction of the famous roosting place in the vicinity of Bristol, Pa. (particularly noted by Wilson), towards the shores of the sea and bay, and returning regularly in the afternoon.. Thousands upon thousands, for several hours, moved heavily along in a broad, irregular line; and, from the numbers found dead in the fields, it is most probable that, during the severest weather, but little benefit resulted from their long diurnal pilgrimage. The common crow is voracious at all times, and nearly, if not quite, as omnivorous as the brown rat. Grain of all sorts, but especially Indian corn, insects, carrion, eggs, fish, young birds, the young of various domestic fowls, and even young pigs, are sought for eagerly, and devoured with avidity. This species, from the peculiar excellence of its sight, smell and hearing, by which it is very early warned of approaching danger, is very audacious, frequently coming close to the farm-houses in search of prey, and persevering in efforts to rob the hens of their chickens, until successful. The writer has witnessed several times, in the state of Maryland, where crows are far too abundant, the pertinacity of one of these robbers in attempting to seize a young chicken, notwithstanding the fierce defence made by the hen. His approaches appeared to have in view the withdrawal of the hen to a little distance from the brood; then, taking advantage of his wings, he would fly suddenly over her, and seize the chick. The same attempts were frequently made upon the goose, with a view to seize her goslins, but the vigilant gander, though sorely fatigued by his struggles, never failed to defeat a single crow: it was otherwise, however, when two or more united for the purpose of feasting on the young. It is not an uncommon thing for farmers to be under the necessity of replanting corn several times in the spring, and, when it is just rising above the ground,

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to be obliged to keep several persons continually on guard in the fields. When the corn has shot up an inch or two above the surface, a host of these black-coated plunderers invade the fields, and, having posted sentinels in several commanding situations, march regularly along the cornrows, drawing up the grain, pulling skilfully by the shoot, and then swallowing the germinating corn. Among the most successful experiments made to prevent the crows from doing this mischief is that of coating the seed corn with a mixture of tar, oil, and a small quantity of slacked lime, in powder. The ingredients being mixed in a tub, the seed corn is stirred in it until each grain receives a thorough coating of the mixture. This preparation, as it necessarily keeps the grain from being readily affected by moisture, is found to retard the germination about three days. In the instance we witnessed of the trial of this preventive, it was fully successful; for, although the field was daily visited by hosts of crows, they were content with pulling up enough corn, in various places, to be satisfied that it was, throughout, equally unpalatable. During their breeding season, which is in the spring months, the flocks spread over a great extent of country, and build their nests of small sticks, lined with grass, in lofty trees, choosing the most remote and difficult of approach. The young, generally, are two in number, and, until fully fledged, are most solicitously protected by their parents. When the young crows first begin to receive lessons in flying, nothing is more remarkable and affecting than the efforts made to preserve them, by the parents, when a gunner approaches the vicinity. Every artifice is employed to call attention away from the young, which seem to comprehend the directions or calls of their parents, and remain perfectly silent and motionless. In the mean while, the father and mother fly towards the gunner, taking care not to remain an instant in one place, and, by the most vociferous outcries, deprecate his cruelty. These efforts being continued, their voluntary exposure, and the eagerness with which they fly about a particular spot, are almost always successful in withdrawing the sportsman from the place where the young actually are. As soon as they have succeeded in leading him to a sufficient distance, they cease their accents of distress, fly a little farther from their young, and from a lofty perch, which enables them to watch all around, utter an occasional cry, which one may readily im

agine to be intended for the direction and encouragement of their offspring. The most successful mode of destroying crows, is that of invading them in their extensive dormitories during the night. When they have selected a pine thicket, or other dense piece of wood, for a roosting place, they repair thither with great regularity. Every evening, vast flocks come sailing to the retreat, and the trees are literally covered and bowed down. When the state of Maryland received crow scalps in payment of taxes, at three cents each, parties were frequently made to attack the crow roosts. Gunners were stationed at various parts, surrounding the roosts, and all those of one division fired at once; the slaughter was necessarily dreadful, and those remaining unhurt, bewildered by the darkness, the flashing and report of the guns, and the distressing cries of their companions, flew but to a little distance, and settled near another party of gunners. As soon as they were fairly at rest, the same tragedy was reacted and repeated, until the approach of day or the fatigue of their destroyers caused a cessation. The wounded were then despatched by knocking them on the head or wringing their necks, and the bill, with so much of the skull as passed for a scalp, was cut off and strung for the payment of the taxgatherer. The poor people, who had no taxes to pay, disposed of their crow scalps to the store-keepers, who purchased them at rather a lower rate. This premium has long been discontinued, and the number of these marauders is, in many parts of that state, quite large enough to require its reëstablishment.

CROWN. In the early ages, when men were fond of expressing all their feelings by outward signs, a wreath of flowers or leaves was naturally one of the first emblems of honor or of joy. Such was the ornament of the priest in the performance of sacrifice, of the hero on his return from victory, of the bride at her nuptials, and of the guests at a feast. The ancient mythology, which gave every thing a distinct beginning and a poetical origin, ascribes the invention of wreaths to Prometheus, who imitated, with flowers, the fetters which he had borne for his love to mankind, whom he had created. According to Pliny, wreaths were first made of ivy, and Bacchus first wore them. In process of time, they were made of very different materials. Those worn by the Greeks at feasts in honor of a divinity, were made of the flowers of the plant consecrated to the god. Wreaths of roses afterwards

became very common. In some cases, wreaths were even made, of wool. Wreaths of ivy and amethyst were worn, by the Greeks, on the head, neck and breast, at entertainments, with a view to prevent drunkenness. Mnesitheus and Callimachus, two Greek physicians, wrote entire books on wreaths, and their medical virtues. Corpses were covered with wreaths and green branches. Lovers adorned with wreaths and flowers the doors of their mistresses, and even captives, who were to be sold as slaves, wore wreaths; hence the phrase sub corona venire or vendere. The beasts sacrificed to the gods were also crowned. Wreaths, in process of time, were made of metal, in imitation of flowers, or of the fillet which the priest wore round his head when he sacrificed, which was called diámpa. This attribute of distinction was early adopted by the kings, when they united in their persons the temporal and spiritual power. Among the various crowns and wreaths in use among the Greeks and Romans, were the following:

Corona agonothetarum; the reward of the victor in the great gymnastic games. Corona aurea (the golden crown); the reward of remarkable bravery. Corona castrensis; given to him who first entered the camp of the enemy.

Corona civica (see Civic Crown); one of the highest military rewards. It was given to him who had saved the life of a citizen. Corona convivalis; the wreath worn at feasts.

Corona muralis; given by the general to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's wall.

Corona natalitia; a wreath which parents hung up before the door at the birth of a child. It was made of olive-branches if the child was a boy, and of wool if a girl.

Corona navalis, the next in rank after the civic crown, was given to him who first boarded and took an enemy's vessel.

Corona nuptialis; a crown or wreath worn by brides. The bridegroom, also, and his relations, on the day of the wedding, adorned themselves with wreaths. At first, the corona nuptialis was of flowers; afterwards, of gold or silver and precious stones.

Corona obsidionalis; a reward given to him who delivered a besieged town, or a blockaded army. It was one of the highest military honors, and very seldom obtained. It was made of grass; if possible, of such as grew on the delivered place.

Corona triumphalis; a wreath of laurel