near the outermost buoy, called the red buoy, with men ready to conduct any vessel which may demand assistance. These pilots very often go as far as the channel, and even through it, to meet vessels. From this village, there is a regular packet line, maintained by the English government, to Harwich. Here is also a quarantine, where vessels are often subjected to much unnecessary delay; sent to Norway, for instance, to take an airing, when they are bound to Hamburg. A bathing-house has been established here, with many other improvements, by the senator Abendroth. In the middle ages, a family named Lappen were in the habit of sailing from this place for the commission of piracy. Hamburg conquered it in the 14th century. With this city, it came under the French dominion, and, in 1814, was again declared a province of Hamburg. The whole bailiwick of Rützebüttel is subject to, not a component part of, Hamburg.

CUYABA, OF JESUS DE CUYABA; a town of Brazil, capital of Matto Grosso, on the river Cuyaba, nearly 300 miles above its entrance into the Paraguay; 280 miles W. Villa Rica; population, 30,000. In the neighborhood of this town are the most western mining stations in Brazil, long celebrated for the quantity of gold they produce. The town is well provided with meat, fruits and vegetables, and the surrounding country is fruitful.

CYANOGEN. (See Prussic Acid.)

CYBELE was originally a particular goddess of the Phrygians, like Isis, the symbol of the moon, and, what is nearly connected with this, of the fruitfulness of the earth; for which reason she is confounded with Rhea, whose worship originated in Crete, and in whom personified nature was revered. When the worship of Cybele was introduced among the Greeks, the goddess was already surrounded with a cloud of mythological traditions. According to Diodorus, Cybele was the daughter of the Phrygian king Mæon, and his wife Dindyma. At her birth, her father, vexed that the child was not a boy, exposed her upon mount Cybelus, where she was nursed by lions and panthers, and afterwards found and brought up by the wives of the herdsmen. She invented fifes and drums, with which she cured the diseases of beasts and children, became intimate with Marsyas, and fell violently in love with Atys. (See Atys.) She was afterwards recognised and received by her parents. Her father, discovering her love for Atys, had him seized and ex

ecuted, and left his body unburied. The grief of Cybele, on this occasion, deranged her understanding. She wandered about, in search of Atys, with dishevelled hair, escorted, by the sound of the drums and fifes which she had invented, through various countries, even to the Hyperboreans, the most distant inhabitants of the North. During her absence, a famine arose in Phrygia, which did not cease until divine honors were paid to Cybele, by the command of the oracle, and the statue of Atys interred, as his body could not be found. Some traditions say that Atys, in a fit of insanity, emasculated himself. Other traditions give a different account of the cause of his misfortune. In memory of him, the priests of Cybele were eunuchs. Her worship was celebrated with a violent noise of instruments, and rambling through fields and woods. In Crete, she was confounded with Rhea. She was also blended with the old Latin goddess Ops. Her original statue was nothing but a dark, quadrangular stone. Afterwards she was represented as a matron, with a mural crown on her head, in reference to the improved condition of men, arising from agriculture, and their union into cities. A common attribute of the goddess is the veil about her head, which refers to the mysterious and incomprehensible in nature. In her right hand she often holds a staff, as an emblem of her power, and, in her left, a Phrygian drum. Sometimes a few ears of corn stand near her. The sun, also, is sometimes represented in her right hand, and the crescent of the moon in her left. We sometimes see her in a chariot, drawn by lions; or else she sits upon a lion, and, as omnipotent nature, she holds a thunderbolt; or a lion lies near her. (See Atalanta.) These symbols are all representations of her dominion, and of the introduction of civilization, by her means, in the period of barbarism.

CYCLADES, in ancient geography; a group of islands in the Archipelago, S. E. of Euboea and Attica, inhabited mostly by Greeks. Nearly in the middle lies the largest island, Naxos. (q. v.) The most southerly is Melos. (q. v.) Paros (q. v.) also is one of this fertile and charming group.

CYCLE (Greek Kúkλos, a circle) is used for every uniformly returning succession of the same events. On such successions or cycles of years rests all chronology, particularly the calendar. Our common solar year, determined by the periodical return of the sun to the same point in the

ecliptic, every body knows, contains 52 weeks and I day, and leap-year a day more. Consequently, in different years, the same day of the year cannot fall upon the same day of the week; but, as, for example, the year 1814 began with Saturday, 1815 with Sunday, 1816 with Monday; but 1817, because preceded by a leapyear, began, not with Tuesday, but with Wednesday. If we count only common years, it is manifest that, from seven years to seven years, every year would begin again with the same day of the week as the seventh year before; or, to express the same in other words, after seven years, the dominical letter (q. v.) would return in the same order. But as every fourth year, instead of a common year, is a leapyear, this can only take place after 4 X 7, or 28 years. Such a period of 28 years is called a solar cycle, and serves to show the day of the week falling on the first day of January in every year. For this purpose, it is only requisite to know with what day of the week a particular year began, and then to prepare a table for the first days of the 27 following years. It is the custom now to fix the beginning of the solar cycle at the ninth year B. C., which was a leap-year, and began with Monday. If you wish to know what day of the week the new-year's day of any year of our reckoning is, you have only to add nine to the number of the year, and then, after dividing this sum by 28, the quotient gives, of course, the number of complete cycles, and the remainder shows what year of the solar period the given year is, of which the table above-mentioned gives the day of the week with which it begins. But this reckoning is only adapted to the Julian calendar. In the Gregorian, it is interrupted by the circumstance that, in 400 years, the last year of the century is three times a common year. Hence this reckoning will not give the day of the week for the first day of the year; but, from 1582 (the commencement of the Gregorian calendar) to 1700, for the 11th, from 1700 to 1800 for the 12th, in the 19th century for the 13th day of the year, and so on, from which we must then reckon back to the new-year's day. Hence it is far more convenient to prepare a table for the beginning of a century (for xample, for 1801, which began with Thursday), and divide by 28 the number of years from that to the given year, and, with the remainder, seek in the table the day of the week for the first day of the year. Besides this, another cycle is necessary for the determination of festival days,

91

by the aid of which the feast of Easter, by which all the movable feasts are regulated, is to be reckoned. Easter depends on the first full moon after the vernal equinox. (See Calendar.) The lunar cycle is a period of 19 years, after which the new moon falls again on the same day of the month. January 2, 1813, there was a new moon; January 2, 1832, there will be a new moon again. As the time from one new moon to another, as astronomy teaches, is about 293 days, a table of the new moons for 19 years may be very easily prepared. It is only necessary to observe that this lunar cycle always begins with a year, of which the first new moon falls on the first of January, and that this was the case the first year B. C. Divide by 19 the number of the year plus 1, and the remainder will show what year in the lunar period the given year is. The number of the year is called the golden number. (See Calendar, and Epact.) Besides these two cycles, which are indispensable for the calculations of the calendar, there are some others, several of them known by the name of periods. (See the accounts given under the heads Calendar and Era.)

The Germans make much use of the word Cyclus in science, meaning by it any series of events, works, observations, &c., which forms a whole in itself, and reminds us of a circle; thus they speak of the Cyclus of works in a certain science, and Cyclus of discoveries by a philosopher, &c., wherever the series forms a well-connected whole.

CYCLIC POETS. (See Greek Literature.) CYCLOID; the line described by a moving wheel. Imagine a circle which is rolled perpendicularly along a straight line, till the point first at rest is brought to rest again, after an entire revolution. The curve, thus described by this point, is called a cycloid, because every point in the circumference of a revolving wheel describes a similar curve. The circle is called the generating circle; the line on which it is described, the base of the cycloid. The length of the cycloid is always four times the diameter of the generating circle, and its area three times the area of this circle. This line is very important in the higher branches of mechanics. Imagine a pendulum suspended by a thread, in such a way that, in the swinging of the pendulum between two plates, each of which is bent in the form of a cycloid, the thread rolls and unrolls itself. Then the longest vibrations will be performed in the same time as the shortest, producing an isochronism, and the cycloid is hence called an iso

chrone or tantochrone. The name of brachystochrone has also been given to the cycloid, because it is the line in which a heavy body, falling in a direction oblique to the horizon, would pass in the shortest time between two points.

CYCLOPEDIA. (See Encyclopædia.)

CYCLOPEAN WORKS, in ancient architecture; masonry performed with huge blocks of stone, much of which is to be seen in Sicily, said, by the ignorant, to be the works of an ancient and fabulous gigantic race of people; as Stonehenge is said by the country people to have been built by the devil. Some of these works, called Cyclopean, were the walls of Argos and Sicyone. Near to Nauplea, in Argolis, there were caverns which, according to Strabo, were called Cyclopean. As servants of Vulcan, the Cyclops were celebrated in mythology and fabulous history for their marvellous works. (See Cyclops.) CYCLOPS; the name of celebrated giants in the mythology of Greece. They are of two kinds: the former are the sons of Neptune, and the latter the sons of Uranus and Gaia (Heaven and Earth). The latter, three in number, Arges, Brontes, Steropes (Thunder and Lightning), were those powerful giants who forged thunderbolts for Jupiter, in the workshop of Vulcan, for which Apollo killed them. Wholly different from these are the sons of Neptune, of whom some enumerate 7; others, near 100. The most distinguished of them is Polyphemus. With him is connected the whole nation of the Cyclops, who are described in the Odyssey (ix, 106 et seq.) as wandering savages, uncouth giants, without agriculture or civil union, dwelling in mountain caves, and supporting themselves by the breeding of cattle. According to Homer, they resided on the west side of Sicily, near the dark Cimmeria. As geographical knowledge increased, the region of Cimmerian darkness was placed at a greater distance, and this nation was described as dwelling on the Riphæan mountains, rich in beds of metal. The one-eyed people, sometimes called Cyclops, sometimes Arimaspians, dug up the Riphæan ores, and wrought them, though disturbed by the griffins which watched the gold. From this time, the two classes of Cyclops are confounded. A part of these Cyclops forged Jupiter's thunderbolts; another part went on an adventure to Greece, where they left several buildings, as monuments of Cyclopean art. (Ö. Müller understands, by the Cyclops, whole nations, united under an ecclesiastical government. This wall-build

ing people might have been humble peasants in the Pelasgian plains of Argos (which is especially called the Cyclopean region), tributary to the Achæans.) When men's acquaintance with the surface of the earth became still more increased, the fabled Riphæan hills were carried still farther into the undiscovered night of the North; and here the history of the oneeyed nation is wrapped in confusion. Some authors place them still on the Riphæan hills to the North: most writers, however, treat them as dwelling again in Sicily, engaged in the service of Vulcan, but working under Etna, or among the flaming crags of the Lipari islands. The mountains emitting fire were their forges; and the roaring within them, the sound of their hammers. How they acquired the character of being one-eyed is unknown, as their name only attributes to them round eyes. Polyphemus, in many figures, is represented with two eyes. Among the Greek pastoral poets, we find the Cyclops exhibited in a rustic and natural character.-Cyclops is likewise a name. which zoologists give to a certain minute aquatic animal.

CYDER. (See Cider.)

CYLINDER; the name of a geometrical solid, formed by two parallel circular surfaces, called the superior base and the inferior base, and a convex surface terminated by them. There is a distinction between rectangular cylinders and oblique cylinders. In the first case, the axis, that is, the straight line joining the centre of the two opposite bases, must be perpendicular; in the second, the axis must form an angle with the inferior base. The solidity of a cylinder is equal to the product of the base by the altitude. Archimedes found that the solidity of a sphere inscribed in an equilateral cylinder, that is, of a sphere whose diameter is equal to the height, and also to the diameter of the base of the cylinder, is equal to two thirds of the solidity of the cylinder. The cylinder is one of those figures which are constantly in use for the most various purposes.

CYLINDER GLASS. (See Glass).

CYMBALS, among the ancients; musical instruments consisting of two hollow basins of brass, which emitted a ringing sound when struck together. The brazen instruments which are now used in military music, and have been borrowed by Europeans from the East, seem to have taken their rise from these. The invention of them, according to some writers, must be referred to the worship of Cybele.

CYNICS. After the Greeks had explored, with unparalleled rapidity, all the regions of philosophy, and sects of the most various kinds had formed themselves, it was not unnatural that a school should arise which condemned speculation, and devoted itself to the moral reformation of society. The Cynics were founded by Antisthenes, a scholar of Socrates, at Athens, about 380 B. C. The character of this philosophy for the most part remained true to the Socratic, particularly in making practical morals its chief, or rather its only object, and in despising all speculation. There were some noble features in the doctrines of the Cynics. They made virtue to consist in self-denial and independence of external circumstances, by which, as they thought, man assimilates himself to God. This simplicity of life, however, was soon carried so far by the Cynics, that it degenerated into carelessness, and even neglect of decency. In their attempts at living conformably to nature, they brought themselves down to the level of savages, and even of brutes. No wonder, then, that the Cynics soon became objects of contempt. The most famous of their number were, besides their founder, the ingenious zealot Diogenes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes, with his wife Hipparchia, and Menippus, who was the last of them. After him, this philosophy merged in the Stoic, a more worthy and honorable sect.-The word cynicism is still used to mark an uncommon contempt or neglect of all external things.

CYNOSURA; a nymph of mount Ida, who educated Jupiter, and was afterwards placed in the constellation of the Little Bear. By this star, the Phoenicians directed their course in their voyages.-Cynosure, in a figurative sense, is hence used as synonymous with pole-star, or guide.

CYNTHIUS; a surname of Apollo, from mount Cynthus, on the island of Delos, at the foot of which he had a temple, and on which he was born. Diana, his sister, is called Cynthia, from the same mountain, because it was also her birthplace.

CYPRESS. The cypress-tree (cupressus sempervirens) is a dark-colored evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely small, and entirely cover the slender branches, lying close upon them, so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape. In some of the trees, the branches diminish gradually in length, from the bottom to the top, in such a manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape. In many of the old gardens in

93

Europe, cypress-trees are still to be found; but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. They are, however, very valuable, on account of their wood, which is hard, compact and durable, of a pale or reddish color, with deep veins and a pleasant smell. We are informed by Pliny, that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of cypress-wood, and, though 400 years old at the time that he wrote, appeared to be nearly as fresh as when new. Indeed, this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter, in the capitol, was made of it. The gates of St. Peter's church, at Rome, are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the emperor Constantine until that of pope Eugenius IV, when gates of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addition to its other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to the attacks of insects, it was formerly_much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature. The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated, by the ancients, to Pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was customary to place branches of cypress-tree before those houses in which any person lay dead. Its perpetual verdure served the poets as the image of eternity, as its dark and silent leaf, unmoved by gentle breezes, is, perhaps, a proper symbol of melancholy. Large collections of cypresses, as they are often seen surrounding Turkish minarets, have a gloomy and interesting appearance. In the western parts of the U. States, upon the Mississippi and other rivers, the cypress constitutes large forests of a most sombre and peculiar character. The dark, dense nature of their foliage, the shade, impenetrable to the sun, which they form, render them the fit abode of wild beasts and reptiles, and almost inaccessible to man. They cover tracts hundreds of miles in extent, and are visited only by the traveller and the wood-cutter.

CYPRIANS; a term used for courtesans, like that of Corinthians (q. v.), because

Venus, the Cyprian goddess, was particularly worshipped on the island of Cy

prus.

CYPRIAN, St., born A. D. 200, at Carthage, was descended from a respectable family, and was a teacher of rhetoric there. In 246, he was converted to Christianity, distributed his property among the poor, and lived in the greatest abstinence. The church, in Carthage, soon chose him presbyter, and, in 248, he was made bishop. He was the light of the clergy, and the comfort of the people. During the persecution under the emperor Decius, he fled, but constantly exhorted his church to continue firm in the Christian faith. In 251, he summoned a council, at Carthage, to decide concerning those who had abandoned their faith during the persecution, but desired to be readmitted through penance. When the persecution of the Christians was renewed, A. D. 257, he was banished to Curubis, 12 leagues from Carthage. Sept. 14, 258, he was beheaded, at Carthage, because, in opposition to the orders of the government, he had preached the gospel in his gardens, near Carthage. Lactantius calls him one of the first eloquent Christian authors. His style, however, retained something of the hardness of his teacher, Tertullian. We have from him an explanation of the Lord's prayer, and 81 letters, affording valuable illustrations of the ecclesiastical history of his time. Baluze published his works complete (Paris, 1726, fol.).

CYPRIS (Cypria); a surname of Venus, from the island of Cyprus, where was her first temple.

CYPRUS; an island in the Mediterranean, between Asia Minor and Syria, famous, in antiquity, for its uncommon fertility and its mild climate. It contains 7264 square miles, and 120,000 inhabitants, of whom 40,000 are Greeks. Cyprus is the native place of the cauliflower. Wine, oil, honey, wool, &c., are still, as formerly, the principal productions. The country is distinguished by remarkable places and mountains; as Paphos, Amathusia, Salamis and Olympus, once adorned with a rich temple of Venus. Venus was particularly venerated here, because, according to tradition, the delightful shores of Cyprus received her when she energed from the foam of the sea. The oldest history of this island is lost in the darkness of antiquity. When Amasis brought it under the Egyptian yoke, 550 B. C., Ionian and Phoenician colonists had formed several small states in the island. It remained an Egyptian

province till 58 B. C., when it was conquered by the Romans. After the division of the Roman territories, Cyprus continued subject to the Eastern empire, and was ruled by its own governors of royal blood, of whom Comnenus I made himself independent, and his family sat upon the throne till 1191, when Richard of England rewarded the family of Lusignan with the sceptre. After the extinction of the legitimate male line of Lusignan, James, an illegitimate descendant, came to the government. His wife was a Venetian (Catharine Cornaro, q. v.), and, as she had no children at his death, the Venetians took advantage of this circumstance to make themselves masters of the island (1473). They enjoyed the undisturbed possession of it till 1571, when Amurath III, notwithstanding the bravest resistance on the part of Marco Antonio Bragadino, who defended Famagusta 11 months, conquered Cyprus, and joined it to the empire of Turkey. Nicosia, the chief city, is the seat of the Turkish governor, a Greek archbishop and an Armenian bishop. The wines of Cyprus are red when they first come from the press; but after five or six years, they grow pale. Only the Muscatel wine is white at first; and even this, as it grows older, becomes redder, till, after a few years, it attains the thickness of sirup. It is very sweet. The wines of Cyprus are not equally agreeable at all seasons of the year: they are best in spring and summer. Excessive cold injures them, and destroys their flavor and color. They are put up at first in leather bags covered with pitch, whence they acquire a strong pitchy flavor which is several years in escaping. They are brought to the continent in casks, but cannot be kept unless drawn off after some time into bottles. The best is distinguished by the name of Commandery. (See Venus).

CYR, St.; a French village in the department of the Seine-and-Oise, one league west of Versailles (population, 1000), famous for the seminary which Louis XIV founded here, at the persuasion of madame Maintenon, in 1686. Here 250 noble ladies were educated, free of expense, until their 20th year. Forty females of the order of St. Augustine instructed the scholars. Madame Maintenon gave all her attention to this establishment. She is buried at St. Cyr. During the revolution, this institution was overturned, and a military preparatory school was founded by Napoleon, which survived his fall, and educates 300 pupils. Napoleon established la maison impériale d'Écouen, an in