stitution similar to the one at St. Cyr, and placed madame Campan at the head of it.

CYRENAICA (originally a Phoenician colony), once a powerful Greek state in the north of Africa, west of Egypt, comprising five cities (Pentapolis), among which was Cyrene, a Spartan colony, is at present a vast, but unexplored field of antiquities. The ancient site of Cyrene is now called Grenne or Cayron, in the country of Barca, in the dominion of Tripoli. Till the fifth century, Cyrenaica was the seat of the Gnostics. (q. v.) The antiquities there are described by the physician P. Della Cella, in his work Viaggio da Tripoli di Barbarie alle Frontieri Occidentali dell' Egitto, fatto nel 1817 (Genoa, 1819, 8vo.). J. R. Pacho, who has travelled over Africa since 1819, made many observations, likewise, in Cyrenaica, for which he received the geographical prize of 3000 francs, on his return to Paris, in 1826. (Voyage de M. Pacho dans la Cyrenaïque.) Of the famous inscription found among the ruins of Cyrene, and brought to Malta, some account has been given by Gesenius (Halle, 1825, 4to.), and Hamacker, professor at Leyden (Leyden, 1825, 4to.). At present, the country is called, by the Arabians, Djebel Akhdar, or Green Highland. Surrounded by sterile and dry countries, Cyrenaica itself is very fertile and well watered. Its hills are covered with wood, and exhibit many melancholy traces of former cultivation. In ancient times, the inhabitants suffered much from the attacks of the people of the interior and the Carthaginians. The ruins of Cyrene have given rise among the present inhabitants, to a belief in a petrified city. There are at present about 40,000 people in Djebel Akhdar.

CYRENAICS; a philosophical sect, whose founder was Aristippus (q. v.), born in Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates. (See Aristippus.) The most distinguished of his followers were Hegesias, Anniceris, Theodore the Atheist, who, for his denial of the existence of virtue and the Deity, was banished from Athens.

CYRENE. (See Cyrenaica.)

CYRIL. Ecclesiastical history mentions three saints of this name:-1. Cyril of Jerusalem, born there about the year 315, was ordained presbyter in 345, and, after the death of St. Maximus, in 350, became patriarch of Jerusalem. Being a zealous Catholic, he engaged in a warm controversy with Acacius, the Arian bishop of Cæsarea. In addition to their dispute upon doctrinal points, Acacius accused

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him of having sold some valuable church ornaments, which he had indeed done, but for the laudable purpose of supporting the needy during a famine. A council assembled at Cæsarea, by Acacius, in 357, deposed Cyril ; but the council of Seleucia, in 359, restored him and deposed his persecutor. Acacius, by his artifices, succeeded in depriving him again of his dignity the next year, and, after the emperor Constantius, on his accession to the throne, had once more recalled him, he was a third time deposed by the emperor Valens, after whose death he finally returned to Jerusalem. In 381, the council of Constantinople confirmed him. He died in 386. We have 23 catecheses composed by him, in a clear and simple style, which are esteemed the oldest and best outline of the Christian dogmas (Paris, 1720, folio.)

2. Cyril of Alexandria was educated by his uncle Theophilus, patriarch of Alexandria; spent five years in the monasteries of Nitria, where he was instructed by the abbot Serapion. He then went to Alexandria, where his graceful form and pleasing delivery gained him so many adherents, that, after his uncle's death, in 412, he succeeded him in the patriarchal dignity. Full of zeal and ambition, he was not satisfied with ecclesiastical honor alone, but exercised secular dominion also. To punish the Jews, by whom Christian blood had been shed, during an insurrection, he assailed them, at the head of the populace, destroyed their houses and their furniture, and drove them out of the city. Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, who complained of such lawless violence, so inconsistent with the character of a bishop, was soon after attacked in the streets by 500 furious monks, one of whom, having wounded Orestes, was apprehended, condemned to death, and expired under the blows of the lictors. Cyril caused his body to be carried in a solemn procession to the cathedral, gave him the name of Thaumasius, and extolled him as a martyr and a saint. The assassination of Hypatia, the learned daughter of Theon, the mathematician, who had excited the envy of Cyril, by the applause which she had gained by her knowledge of geometry and philosophy, took place at his instigation. In the notorious synod of 403, in concurrence with his uncle, he had planned the condemnation of St. Chrysostom, and it was only after an obstinate resistance, that he was persuaded to submit to the decrees of the Catholic church, in respect to that prelate. Still more fierce were his disputes with Nestorius, the suc

cessor of Chrysostom, who distinguished between the divine and human nature of Christ, acknowledging Mary as the mother of Christ, but refusing to her the appellation of mother of God. Cyril contended long and violently against these doctrines, and appointed pope Celestine umpire, who immediately condemned them. He drew up 12 anathemas, directed against John, patriarch of Antioch, which, in the opinion even of theologians, are not wholly free from heresy, and called upon Nestorius to subscribe them. To settle the dispute between these two prelates, the council of Ephesus was summoned. Both parties appeared with a great number of adherents and servants, between whom innumerable disputes arose. Cyril opened the council before the arrival of the patriarch of Antioch; and, although Nestorius refused to recognise his enemies as judges; although 68 bishops were in his favor, and a magistrate, in the name of the emperor, demanded a delay of four days; yet, in a single day, Nestorius was condemned, deposed, and declared to be a second Judas. Soon after, the patriarch of Antioch arrived, and held a synod of 50 bishops, who, with equal haste, condemned Cyril as guilty of heresy, and declared him a monster born for the ruin of the church. Both parties rushed to arms: the streets of the city, and the cathedral itself, became the theatre of their fury, and were polluted with blood. The emperor Theodosius sent troops to Ephesus, to disperse this pugnacious council. This measure, how ever, only changed the theatre of the war; for it was continued three years longer, between John of Antioch and Cyril. Soon after, Nestorius, not less violent than Cyril, obtained from the emperor a command for Cyril to appear again before a council at Ephesus. Both parties appeared, with their adherents, in arms. Cyril was maltreated, and even imprisoned. He escaped from his keepers, however, and fled to Alexandria. From that place, he contrived, by distributing bribes, to excite an insurrection in Constantinople, which struck terror into the timid emperor. Negotiations were begun: Cyril was prevailed upon to mitigate his anathema, and, against his will, to acknowledge a twofold nature in Christ. But Nestorius, as he was determined never to renounce his opinions, was compelled to lay down his offices, and to retire to a monastery. He was afterwards banished to Thebais. In 339 or 340, he died. Cyril closed his restless career in 344. His opinions prevailed both in the Eastern and Western

empire, and the church gave him a place among the saints. The best edition of his works, in which there is neither clearness nor accuracy of style, is that of 1638, in folio.-3. St. Cyril, a native of Thessalonica, by way of distinction, was called Constantine, and, at Constantinople, where he studied, received the name of the Philosopher. At the recommendation of St. Ignatius, the emperor Michael III sent him to the Chazars-a people of the stock of the Huns. He converted the khan, after whose example the whole nation were baptized. He then preached the gospel, with Methodius, to the Bulgarians, and baptized their king Bojaris, A. D. 860. They had the same success in Moravia and Bohemia. Still later, they went to Rome, where they both died. According to Dobrowsky, Cyril died in 868: according to Xav. Richter, he died in 871 or 872. The two apostles were both declared saints. The Greeks and Russians celebrate the festival of St. Cyril on Feb. 14. He was the inventor of the Cyrillian Letters (q. v.), which took their name from him, and is probably the author of the Apologies which bear his name.

CYRILLIAN LETTERS; characters called, in Sclavonic, Czuraliza; one of the modes of writing the Sclavonic language, of which there are three:-1. Roman or German letters, used by the people of Poland, Bohemia and Lusatia; 2. Cyrillian, so called from their inventor, Cyrillus. They are much used by the Russians. 3. From these Cyrillian characters, probably through the artifices of calligraphy, a peculiar alphabet was formed, which is sometimes used in printed books, but no where in common life.

CYRUS; a celebrated conqueror. The only two original authorities concerning him-Herodotus and Xenophon-differ so greatly, that they cannot be reconciled. According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cambyses, a distinguished Persian, and of Mandane, daughter of the Median king Astyages. He founded the Persian monarchy. (See Assyria.) A short time before his birth, the soothsayers at the court of Astyages divined from a dream of his, that his future grandson was to dethrone him. Upon this, he gave orders that Cyrus should be destroyed immediately after his birth. For this purpose, he was delivered to a herdsman, who, moved with compassion, brought him up, and named him Cyrus. His courage and spirit betrayed his descent to the king. On one occasion, playing with other boys, being chosen king by his companions, he caused

D; the fourth letter in our alphabet, of the order of mutes. (See Consonant.) According to M. Champollion's recent discoveries, the d, in the hieroglyphic writing of the old Egyptians, corresponding to the dau of the Copts, is a segment of a circle, similar to a . The Greek delta was a triangle, A, from which the Roman D has been borrowed. D, as an initial letter on medals, indicates the names of countries, cities and persons, as Decius; also the words devotus, designatus, divus, dominus, &c.; D. M., diis manibus; D. O. M., Deo optimo maximo. The Greek A represented the number four. Among Roman numerals, D signifies 500, but was not used as a numerical designation until 1500 years after Christ. The Romans designated a thousand in this way,-CI). The early printers, it is said, thought it best to express 500 by half the character of 1000, and therefore introduced I, which soon grew into D. If a line was marked over it, it signified 5000. In inscriptions and manuscripts, D is very often found in the place of B and L; des for bes, dachruma for lachruma. In dedications, D., thrice_repeated, signifies Dat, Donat, Dicat, or Dat, Dicat, Dedicat. As an abbreviation of the jurists, D signifies the pandects (Digesta). D stands for doctor in M. D.; in D. T., doctor of theology; LL. D., doctor of laws, &c. D., on French coins, signifies Lyons; on Prussian, Aurich; on Austrian, Grütz. In music, D designates the second note in the natural diatonic scale of C, to which Guido applied the monosyllable re.

DA CAPO (Ital.; from the head or beginning); an expression written at the end of a movement, to acquaint the performer

that he is to return to, and end with, the first strain. It is also a call or acclamation to the singer or musician, in theatres or concerts, to repeat a piece which he has just finished-a request very often made mercilessly by the public, without regard to the fatigue caused by a performance.

DACCA JELALPORE; an extensive and rich district of Bengal, situated principally between 23° and 24° of N. lat. It is intersected by the Ganges and Brahmapootra, two of the largest rivers in India, which, with their various branches, form a complete inland navigation, extending to every part of the country; so that, every town having its river or canal, the general mode of travelling or conveying goods is by water.

DACCA; a large city, capital of the abovenamed district, and, for 80 years, the capital of Bengal. It is situated on the northern bank of a deep and broad river, called the Boor Gunga (Old Ganges), at the distance of 100 miles from the sea. In this city, or its vicinity, are manufactured beautiful muslins, which are exported to every part of the civilized world. It has also an extensive manufacture of shell bracelets, much worn by the Hindoo women. The neighborhood of the city abounds with game of all sorts, from the tiger to the quail, and is, on this account, a great resort of Europeans, during the three cold months. 180 miles from Calcutta by land; lon. 90° 17′ E.; lat. 23° 42′ N.

DACH, Simon, a German poet of the 17th century, born at Memel, July 29, 1605, lived in an humble condition, until he was appointed professor of poetry in

the university of Königsberg. He remained in this office until his death, April 15, 1659. His secular songs are lively and natural. His sacred songs are distinguished for deep and quiet feeling.

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The care of the cabinet in the Louvre was intrusted to him. He died in 1722. Dacier wrote several indifferent translations of the Greek and Latin authors. Besides the edition of Pompeius Festus, and the Euvres d'Horace, en Latin, et en Francais, with the Nouveaux Éclaircissemens sur les Œuvres d'Horace, and the Nouvelle Traduction d'Horace, with critical annotations, he prepared an edition of Valerius Flaccus, a translation of Marcus Antoninus, of Epictetus, of Aristotle's Art of Poetry, with annotations,, of the Lives of Plutarch, of the Edipus and Electra of Sophocles, of the works of Hippocrates, and of several dialogues of Plato.

DACIA. The country which anciently bore this name, according to Ptolemy's description, comprised the present Banat, a part of Lower Hungary, as far as the Carpathian mountains on the west, Transylvania, Moldavia, Walachia and Bessarabia. Some include Bulgaria and Servia, with Bosnia, or the ancient Upper and Lower Mosia. The inhabitants of this country, called Daci, also Davi, made themselves, for a long time, terrible to the Romans. When Trajan conquered Dacia, in the second century, he divided it into, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis (the present Banat, and a part of Hungary), so called because it was bounded on the west by the Theiss, and on the east by the Danube; 2. Dacia Mediterranea (now Transylvania), so called, because it was situated between the two others; and, 3. Dacia Transalpina (now Walachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia), or that part of Dacia lying beyond the Carpathian mountains. He governed each of these three provinces by a prefect, established colonies in them, and sent colonists from other parts of the Roman empire, to people them, and supply cultivators of the soil. When Constantine the Great divided the Roman empire anew, Dacia became a part of the Illyrian prefecture, and was divided into five provinces or districts. Upon the fall of the Roman empire, it was gradually overrun by the Goths, Huns, Gepida and Avars. Since that time, the history of this country, which then lost the name of Dacia, is to be sought for in that of the provinces of which it formerly consisted.

DACIER, Anna Lefèvre; wife of the preceding; born at Saumur, in 1651. After the death of her learned father, who had instructed her, and cultivated her talents, she went to Paris, where she displayed her learning by an edition of Callimachus (1675), which she inscribed to Huet, the under tutor of the dauphin. The duke of Montausier, in consequence, intrusted her with the care of several editions of the classics (in usum delphini). She first edited Florus (q. v.), with a commentary. Her learned works were not interrupted by her marriage. Her feeble translation of Homer attracted a good deal of attention, and led to a dispute between her and Lamotte, in which it appeared that madame Dacier understood much less of logic, than Lamotte of the Greek language. In her Considérations sur les Causes de la Corruption du Gout, she defended Homer with the acuteness of a profound commentator, and Lamotte replied with a great deal of wit and elegance; on which account it was said, Lamotte wrote like an ingenious woman, madame Dacier like a learned man. Lamotte introduced her to the notice of queen Christina, who persuaded her to embrace the Catholic religion. In her Homère défendu, she showed little mercy to Hardouin, who had written a satirical eulogy of this poet. On this occasion, she was said to have uttered more invectives against the reviler of Homer, than the poet himself had placed in the mouths of all his heroes. She translated Terence, and three pieces of Plautus, in the prologue of which she treats of the origin, the cultivation and changes of dramatic poetry with acuteness. Her translation of the Plutus and the Clouds of Aristophanes, deserves indulgence, as the first translation of the Greek comic poet. Her translation of Anacreon and Sappho, with a defence of the latter, met with success. She also wrote annotations

DACIER, André, born at Castres, in Upper Languedoc, 1651, of Protestant parents, studied at Saumur, under Tanneguy-Lefevre, whose daughter Anna was associated in his studies. After the death of Lefevre, in 1672, he went to Paris. The duke of Montausier, to whom his learning was known, intrusted him with the editing of Pompeius Festus (in usum delphini). The intimacy growing out of their mutual love of literature led to a marriage between him and Anna Lefèvre, in 1683, and, two years after, they both embraced the Catholic religion. They received from the king considerable pensions. In 1695, Dacier was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions, and of the French academy: of the latter he was afterwards perpetual secretary.