marriage, which is the foundation of society, adultery has been viewed as a great offence by all nations. The consideration of the penalties which ought to be imposed on the offenders is inseparable from the question of divorce and the provision for the children of the marriage, if any.

ADVENTURE, BILL OF, is a writing signed by a merchant, stating that the property of goods shipped in his name belongs to another, the adventure or chance of which the person so named is to stand, with a covenant from the merchant to account to him for the produce. In commerce, an adventure is defined a speculation in goods sent abroad under the care of a supercargo, to dispose of to the best advantage for the benefit of his employers.

paper, which has always had the largest number of advertisements, contained 202,972 advertisements in 1842, or nearly one-third of all the advertisements published in London: as many as 1200 advertisements have sometimes appeared in one day's publication, and the average number each day exceeds 700. Since 1836 this newspaper has issued a double sheet; and within the last two years, during the session of Parliament, even an additional sheet has been issued twice or three times a week, in conse

ADVERTISEMENT (from the French avertissement, which properly sig-quence of the demand for increased space nifies a giving notice, or the announcement, of some fact or facts). In the English, Scotch, and Irish newspapers, and other periodical works, there are annually published nearly two millions of announcements, which, whatever be their peculiar character, are known by the general name Advertisement. The duty on a single advertisement was formerly 38. 6d. in Great Britain, and 2s. 6d. in Ireland; but by 3 & 4 Wm. IV. c. 23, it was reduced to 1s. 6d. in Great Britain, and 1s. in Ireland. In the year previous to this reduction the total number of newspaper advertisements published in the United Kingdom was 921,943, viz. 787,649 in England, 108,914 in Scotland, and 125,380 in Ireland. The duty amounted to 172,570l., and had been stationary for several years. In 1841 the number of advertisements had increased to 1,778,957, namely, 1,386,625 for England and Wales (653,615 in London, and 733,010 in provincial newspapers); 188,189 in Scotland; and 204,143 in Ireland. The total duty amounted to 128,3187.; and it has progressively increased from the period when the reduction took place, so that there is little doubt of its producing, in time, as large a revenue as it did at the higher rate. The circulation of newspapers has nearly doubled since the reduction of the stamp

for advertisements. Generally speaking, advertisements supply the fund out of which newspapers are supported, as the price at which the newspaper is sold is insufficient to pay the cost of the stamp, the paper, the printing, and the cost of management. In the greater number of advertisements, the former duty of 3s. 6d. constituted a tax of 100 per cent.. The lowest price of an advertisement in a London daily newspaper is now 58., which includes the duty: such advertisement must not exceed five lines. The usual practice is to charge 6d. per line for each line above four: but when the number of lines exceeds about twenty lines, the rate of charge is increased, the longest advertisements being charged at the highest rate. The rate per column for a single advertisement varies from 61. to 127. according to the circulation of the paper in which it is printed. Advertisements from servants wanting places are charged only 4s. each; and one or two papers in the large provincial towns have adopted a plan of charging only 2s. 6d. for short advertisements of a couple of lines, which are sufficient to embrace notices of a great variety of public wants, of a nature similar to those made known by advertisement in the papers of the United States. But here the duty on these short advertisements constitutes a tax of

66 per cent.

If the duty were abo- | drawn upon him, with the particulars of date, &c., to whom payable, &c., and where.

lished, the minimum price of advertisements would probably be 1s. in all but a few papers. The habit of advertising has, however, been practically discouraged by the former high duty. In our complicated state of society every facility should be given to the only effectual means of informing the public of new improvements, inventions, and other things calculated to promote the public advantage. The yearly number of advertisements in the United States, where no duty on them exists, is said to exceed 10,000,000.

Advertisements relating to the administration of the poor law, such as contracts for supplies, elections of officers, &c., are exempt from duty, as are also those relating to the proceedings under bankruptcies and insolvencies.

A printed copy of every pamphlet or paper (not a newspaper) containing advertisements must be brought to the Stamp-Office to be entered, and the duty thereon to be paid, under a penalty of 201. (§ 21, 6 & 7 Wm. IV. c. 76).

·

The first English advertisement which can be found, is in the Impartial Intelligencer' for 1649, and relates to stolen horses. In the few papers published from the time of the Restoration to the imposition of the Stamp Duty in 1712, the price of a short advertisement appears seldom to have exceeded a shilling, and to have been sometimes as low as sixpence. (Nichols's Literary Anecdotes, vol. iv.)

ADVICE, in its legal signification, has reference only to bills of exchange. The propriety of inserting the words " as per advice," depends on the question whether or not the person on whom the bill is drawn is to expect further directions from the drawer. Bills are sometimes made payable "as per advice;" at other times "without further advice;" and generally without any of these words. In the former case the drawer may not, in the latter he may, pay before he has received advice.

Advice, in commercial language, means information given by one merchant or banker to another by letter, in which the party to whom it is addressed is informed of the bills or drafts which have been

ADVOCATE, from the Latin advo catus. The origin of advocates in Rome was derived from an early institution, by which every head of a patrician house had a number of dependants, who looked up to him as a protector, and in return owed him certain obligations. This was the relation of patron and client (patronus, cliens). As it was one of the principal and most ordinary duties of the patron to explain the law to his client, and to assist him in his suits, the relation was gradually contracted to this extent.

In early periods of the Roman republic the profession of an advocate was held in high estimation. It was then the practice of advocates to plead gratuitously; and those who aspired to honours and offices in the state took this course to gain popularity and distinction. As the ancient institutions were gradually modified, the services of Roman advocates were secured by pay. At first it appears that presents of various kinds were given as voluntary acknowledgments of the gratitude of clients for services rendered. These payments, however, gradually assumed the character of debts, and at length became a kind of stipend periodically payable by clients to those persons who devoted themselves to pleading. At length the Tribune M. Cincius, about B.C. 204, procured a law to be passed, called from him Lex Cincia, prohibiting advocates from taking money or gifts for pleading the causes of their clients. In the time of Augustus, this intended prohibition seems to have become inefficient and obsolete; and a Senatus consultum was then passed by which the Cincian law was revived, and advocates were made liable to a penalty of four times the amount of any fee which they received. Notwithstanding these restrictions, the constant tendency was to recur to a pecuniary remuneration; for in the time of the Emperor Claudius we find a law restraining advocates from taking exorbitant fees, and fixing as a maximum the sum of 10,000 sesterces for each cause pleaded, which would be equivalent to about 801. sterling. (Tacit. Ann. xi. 5, 7.)

Though the word Advocate is the term now generally used to express a person conversant with the law who manages a plaintiff's or defendant's case in court, this is not exactly the meaning of the Roman work advocatus. The word Advocatus, as the etymology of the word implies (advocare, to call to one's aid), was any person who gave another his aid in any business, as a witness for instance, or otherwise. It was also used in a more restricted sense to signify a person who gave his advice or aid in the management of a cause; but the Advocatus of the republican period was not the modern Advocate. He who made the speech for plaintiff or defendant was termed Orator or Patronus. Ulpian, who wrote in the second century A.D., defines Advocatus to be one who assisted another in the conduct of a suit (Dig. 50, tit. 13); under the Empire indeed we find Advocatus sometimes used as synonymous with Orator. As the word Advocatus must not be confounded with Orator, so neither must Advocatus nor Orator be confounded with Jurisconsultus, whose business it was to know the law and to give opinions on cases. The Emperor Hadrian established an Advocatus Fisci, whose functions were to look after the interests of the Fiscus, or the Imperial revenue.

of this practice exist in all countries into which the Roman law has been introduced; and are also clearly discernible in the rules and forms respecting fees to counsel at the present day in England.

In countries where the Roman law prevails in any degree, the pleaders in courts of justice are still called advocates, but their character and duties vary under different governments. [ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF; and AVOCAT.]

Advocates in English courts are usually termed COUNSEL.

The Lord Advocate, or King's Advocate, is the principal crown lawyer in Scotland. [ADVOCATE, LORD.]

In the middle ages various functionaries bore the title of Advocati.

Advocati Ecclesiarum were persons who were appointed to defend the rights and the property of churches by legal proceedings. They were established under the later Empire, and subsequently it was determined, in a council held by Eugenius II., that bishops, abbots, and churches should have Advocati, or, as they were otherwise called, Defensores, from their duty of defending the rights of the church. These Advocati were laymen, and took the place of the earlier officers of the same kind, called Economi, who were those ecclesiastics to whom was in

trusted the care of church property. In course of time the office of Advocatus Ecclesiarum was conferred on powerful nobles, whose protection the church wished to secure. Charlemagne was chosen Advocatus by the Romans, to defend the Church of St. Peter against the Lombard kings of Italy. Pepin is styled, in a do

and Roman Defender (Defensor Romanus). The title of Advocate of St. Peter was given to the Emperor Henry II.; and Frederick I. was called Defender of the Holy Roman Church.

In still later periods these restrictions upon the pecuniary remuneration of advocates, which must always have been liable to evasion, disappeared in practice; and the payment of persons for conducting causes in courts of justice resembled in substance the payment of any other services. In form, however, the fee was merely an honorary consideration (quid-cument of A.D. 761, King of the Franks dam honorarium), and was generally prenumerated, or paid into the hands of the advocate before the cause was pleaded. It was a rule that, if once paid, the fee could never be recovered, even though the advocate was prevented by death or accident from pleading the cause: and when an advocate was retained by his client at an annual salary (which was lawful and usual), the whole yearly payment was due from the moment of the retainer, though the advocate died before the expiration of the year. (Heineccius, Elementa Juris Civilis, p. 132.) Traces

The business of these Advocati was originally to defend the rights of a church or religious body in the courts, but they subsequently became judges, and held courts for the vassals of those religious houses whose Advocati they were. They were paid by a third part of the fines; the other two-thirds went to the church for whom they acted. The Advocatus and