ring its progress, the opposition of the chemists and druggists rendered it necessary to introduce a clause which exempted that class of dealers altogether from its operation. From the circumstance that in country places, with very few exceptions, no person can practise medicine without keeping a supply of drugs for the use of his patients, or in other words, acting as an apothecary, this statute has given to the Society of Apothecaries control over the medical profession throughout England. Every general practitioner must not only have obtained his certificate, but must have served an apprenticeship of five years with a licentiate of the Company. The payment required by the Act of Parliament for a licence to practise in London, or within ten miles of it, is ten guineas; in any other part of the country, six guineas; and the licence to practise as an assistant is two guineas. The penalty for practising without this licence is twenty pounds. It is declared in the act that the society may appropriate the moneys which they thus receive in any way they may deem expedient. It appears that from the 1st August, 1815, when the new act came into operation, to the 31st January, 1844, 10,033 practitioners have been licensed by the Court of Examiners. Dividing the twentyseven years from August, 1816, to August, 1843, into three periods of nine years each, the annual average number of persons examined, rejected, and passed, is as follows: Examined. Rejected. 68.3 Passed. 288.6 384.7 408.8 That the examination is not a mere matter of form is shown by the number of pupils rejected, which in the first period of nine years was 1 in about 15; in the second, above 1 in 6-6; and in the nine years ending August, 1843, one in 6-2. The rejected candidates no doubt frequently obtain their diplomas at a subsequent examination, after preparing themselves better; but the fact of so many being rejected is creditable to the Court of Examiners. No fees are paid by the rejected candidates. From a return printed by order of the House of Commons in 1834, it appears that from the 29th March, 1825, to the 19th June, 1833, the money received by the company for certificates was 22,8221. 16s. Of this, in the course of the eight years, 10,2187. 128. had been paid to the members of the Court of Examiners, besides 980l. to their secretary. Before the act of 1815 came into operation, a large proportion of the medical practitioners in country places in England were graduates of the Universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, or licentiates of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of these cities, or of that of London; but the state of medical education generally was at that period very defective. The London College of Surgeons required no medical examination whatever, and twelve months only of surgical study. Persons thus qualified are admitted as surgeons in the army and navy, and into the service of the East India Company, after an additional examination by their respective boards; but they are not allowed to act as apothecaries in England. Except in regard to experience in the compounding of medicines, it is not denied that, twelve or fourteen years ago, the course of education prescribed by the Company's Court of Examiners was very defective. In their regulations, dated August, 1832, referring to the improved system which had been recently introduced, they say, "The medical education of the apothecary was heretofore conducted in the most desultory manner; no systematic course of study was enjoined by authority or established by usage; some subjects were attended to superficially, and others of great importance were neglected altogether. fact, all the attendance upon lectures and hospital practice that was demanded might have been and often was gone through in six or at most in eight months. The court at that time admitted that still the attendance upon lectures, but more especially upon the hospital practice, is often grossly eluded or neg lected." The case is now greatly altered. The following abstract of the principal 66 In regulations issued by the Court of Examiners from 1815 to the present time, show that the strictness as to the attendance on and number of lectures and hospital practice has been gradually increased. The instructions issued by the Court of Examiners, dated 31st July, 1815 (the day previous to the new act coming into operation), require evidence from candidates for the licence of the Company of having served an apprenticeship of five years, also testimonials of good moral character and of having attained the age of twenty-one years. The course of lectures prescribed were:-One course of lectures on chemistry, one on materia medica, two on anatomy and physiology, two on the theory and practice of medicine; six months' attendance on the medical practice of an hospital, infirmary, or dispensary. The examination consisted :1. În translating parts of the Pharmacopœia Londinensis' and physicians' prescriptions. 2. In the theory and practice of medicine. 3. In pharmaceutical chemistry. 4. In the materia medica. In September, 1827, the Court of Examiners prescribed an addition to the above course; an extra course of lectures on chemistry, and the introduction of botany in the course on materia medica. In September, 1828, the Court increased the number of lectures both in chemistry, and materia medica with botany, to two courses on each subject. The period of attendance on the physician's practice at an hospital was increased to nine months, and at a dispensary to twelve months; and two new courses of lectures were instituted,―on midwifery and the diseases of women and children. In October, 1830, the Court directed that candidates should produce a certificate of having devoted at least two years to an attendance on lectures and hospital practice; besides which they must have attended for twelve months, at least, the physician's practice at an hospital containing not less than sixty beds, and where a course of clinical lectures is given; or for fifteen months at a dispensary connected with some medical school recognised by the Court. The following changes and additions in the courses of lectures were also made :-Oue course was instituted on forensic medicine; one distinct course on botany; and therapeutics was included in the two courses on materia medica. Students were earnestly recommended to avail themselves of instruction in morbid anatomy. In April, 1835, the Court of Examiners issued new regulations (which are those now in use) for raising still higher the qualifications of candidates for the licence of the Company. Every candidate whose attendance on lectures commenced on or after the 1st of October, 1835, must have attended the following lectures and medical practice during not less than three winter and two summer sessions: each winter session to consist of not less than six months, and to commence not sooner than the 1st nor later than the 15th October; and each summer session to extend from the 1st of May to the 31st of July. First Winter Session. - Chemistry Anatomy and physiology. Anatomical demonstrations. Materia medica and therapeutics; this course may be divided into two parts of fifty lectures each, one of which may be attended in the summer. First Summer Session. - Botany and vegetable physiology; either before or after the first winter session. Second Winter Session.-Anatomy and physiology. Anatomical demonstrations. Dissections. Principles and practice of medicine. Second Summer Session.-Forensic medicine. Third Winter Session. Dissections. Principles and practice of medicine. Midwifery, and the diseases of women and children, two courses, in separate sessions, and subsequent to the terminaof the first winter session. Practical midwifery, at any time after the conclusion of the first course of midwifery lectures. Medical practice during the full term of eighteen months, from or after the commencement of the second winter session; twelve months at a recognised hospital, and six months at a recognised hospital or a recognised dis pensary in connection with the hospital attendance, a course of clinical lectures, and instruction in morbid anatomy, will he required. The sessional course of instruction in each subject of study is to consist of not less than the following number of lectures:-One hundred on chemistry; one hundred on materia medica and therapeutics; one hundred on the principles and practice of medicine; sixty on midwifery, and the diseases of women and children; fifty on botany and vegetable physiology. Every examination of an hour's duration will be deemed equivalent to a lecture. The lectures required in each course must be given on separate days. The lectures on anatomy and physiology, and the anatomical demonstrations, must be in conformity with the regulations of the Royal College of Surgeons of London in every respect. Candidates must also bring testimonials of instruction in practical chemistry, and of having dissected the whole of the human body once at least. The above course of study may be extended over a longer period than three winter and two summer sessions, provided the lectures and medical practice are attended in the prescribed order and in the required sessions. The examinations of the candidate for the certificate are as follows:-In translating portions of the first four books of Celsus De Medicinâ' and of the first twenty-three chapters of Gregory's Conspectus Medicina Theoretica; in physicians' prescriptions, and the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis;' in chemistry; in materia medica and therapeutics; in botany; in anatomy and physiology; in the principles and practice of medicine. This branch of the examination embraces an inquiry into the pregnant and puerperal states; and also into the diseases of children. In the 'Statement' issued by the Society of Apothecaries in May, 1844, they say: "Had the means of instruction remained as they were in 1815, the Court of Examiners could not have ventured upon extending their regulations as they have done. In this instance, however, as in others, the demand produced the supply. The increased number of medical stu dents attending lectures in conformity with the Regulations led to the increase of medical teachers, and not only did new schools spring up in the metropolis, but, under the auspices of the Court of Examiners, public schools of medicine were organized in the provinces: and at the present day Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Bristol, Hull, Sheffield, Newcastle, and York, have each their public school, at which the student may pursue and complete his medical education." It is added that "no mean proportion of those whose examination has given evidence of the highest professional attainment have been pupils of the provincial schools." The influence of the Regulations of the Court of Examiners on the medical profession is very great. The number of students who registered at Apothecaries' Hall at the commencement of the winter session of 1843-4, as having entered to lectures at the metropolitan schools alone, in conformity with these Regulations, was 1031. The opinion of very eminent members of the medical profession before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1834, as to the manner in which the Apothecaries' Company had performed the duties devolving upon them as an examining body, are very decided. Sir Henry Halford stated that "the character of that branch of the profession had been amazingly raised since they have had that authority;" Dr. Seymour, that "there is no question that the education of the general practitioner is of the very highest kind, as good as that of physicians some years ago;" Sir David Barry, that " the examination established by the Company of Apothecaries was by far the most comprehensive examination in London." In November, 1830, the Court issued very strict rules respecting the registration of lectures and hospital or dispensary attendance. The Apothecaries' Society, in their interpretation of the clause which requires five years' apprenticeship to an apothecary, have considered that " every candidate who has been an apprentice for the length of time directed by the act, is entitled to be examined, provided the person to whom he was an apprentice was legally qualified to practise as an apothecary according to the laws in force in that kingdom or particular district in which he resided; and in accordance with this interpretation, hundreds of candidates have been admitted to examination who have served their apprenticeships in Scotland and Ireland, as well as many from America and the British Colonies." (Reply, &c. p. 3.) Of twenty-four graduates and licentiates of the Scottish colleges who presented themselves for examination be- | fore the Society of Apothecaries during the twelve months ending the 25th of April, 1833, eight candidates, or one-third of the whole number, were rejected. (Reply, &c.) The whole subject of medical education in these kingdoms requires a complete and impartial investigation; and that the apprentice clause in particular demands a fresh consideration, is now a pretty general opinion. The admission of graduates from Scotland and Ireland to an equal participation of practice with the English general practitioner, can only be regarded as a very partial measure of reform, if reform should be found necessary; and the interests of the public require that, if others than those licensed by the Apothecaries' Society are admitted to general practice in England, there shall at least be good proof that they are as well qualified as those who obtain the apothecaries' diploma. One plan of medical reform to which attention has been recently directed is to form what are now termed the three branches of the profession into one Faculty of Medicine, with the power of electing their own council; but it is contended that the physicians and surgeons having interests adverse to those of the apothecaries, such a plan would not be fair. It is also proposed that chemists and druggists should be duly registered after an examination respecting their fitness. The Apothecaries' Company ranks the fifty-eighth in the list of city Companies. The freedom of the Company is acquired by patrimony, freedom, and redemption. Freedom by patrimony may be acquired by persons not apothecaries. The charter requires that all persons practising as apothecaries in the city of London should belong to the Company; but this rule is not enforced. Apprentices to apothecaries must be bound at the Company's Hall, after an examination by the Master and Wardens as to their proficiency in Latin. The members of the society are exempted by statute from serving ward and parish offices. The income of the Company is under 2000l. a year. Their arms are, azure, Apollo in his glory, holding in his left hand a bow, in his right an arrow, bestriding the serpent Python ; supporters, two unicorns; crest, a rhinoceros, all or; motto, Opiferque per orbem dicor. They have a hall, with very extensive laboratories, warehouses, &c., in Water-lane, Blackfriars, where medicines are sold to the public; and where, since the reign of Queen Anne, all the medicines are prepared that are used in the army and navy. The freemen of the Company who are what is termed proprietors of stock, have the privilege of becoming participators in the profits arising from the sale of medicines. The concern is regulated by a committee of thirty members. The dispensary was established in 1623; and the laboratories by subscription among the members of the Company in 1671. The Company also possess a garden, to which every medical student in London is admitted, of above three acres in extent, at Chelsea, in which exotic plants are cultivated. The ground was originally devised to them, in 1673, for sixty-one years at a rent of five pounds, by Charles Cheyne, Esq., lord of the manor of Chelsea, and afterwards granted to them in perpetuity, in 1721, by his successor, Sir Hans Sloane, on condition that they should annually present to the Royal Society, at one of their public meetings, fifty specimens or samples of different sorts of plants, well-cured and of the growth of the garden, till the number should amount to two thousand. This they have long since done, and the specimens are preserved by the Royal Society. The gardens are kept up at a considerable expense out of the funds of the Company, assisted at various times by liberal contributions of the members. Connected with the garden is the office of Botanical Demonstrator, who is appointed by the Court | (De Appellationibus). In the French language, the word apellant signifies he who appeals, he who makes an appel from the decree or sentence of an inferior judge, and both words have the same sense in the English. Appel also signifies a challenge to single combat. He gives gratuitous lectures at the garden twice a week from May to September, to the apprentices of freemen of the Company, and to the pupils of all botanical teachers who apply for admission at the garden. The society gives every year a gold and a silver medal and books as prizes to the best-informed students in The French word Appeller is exmateria medica who have attended their plained as signifying the act of summongarden. The apprentices of members of ing the party against whom complaint is the society are not permitted to contend made. There is also the phrase to "appeal with other candidates for these prizes. from one to another," which is the EngAPPARENT HEIR, in the law of lish expression. The Latin word AppelScotland, is a person who has succeeded lare is used both to express the summonby hereditary descent to land or other ing or calling on a person against whom heritable property, but who has not ob- a complaint or demand is made, and the tained feudal investiture. An apparent calling on, or applying to, the person heir may act as absolute proprietor in | whose protection is sought (Appius trialmost every other capacity but that of bunos appellavit: Livy, iii. 56). In removing tenants who have got posses- the Roman law-writers the common sion from his predecessor. phrase is "appellare ad," from which is borrowed the modern expression "to appeal to;" and the appellant is said "appellare adversus, contra, aliquem or sententiam præsidis," or "appellare a, ex, de sententia," which phrases resemble those in use among us. (Facciolati, Lex. Appello; Richelet, Dictionnaire de la Langue Françoise.) APPARITOR, an officer employed as messenger and in other duties in ecclesiastical courts. The canons direct that letters citatory are not to be sent by those who have obtained them, nor by their messenger, but the judge shall send them by his own faithful messenger. It is the duty of the apparitor to call defendants into court, and to execute such commands as the judge may give him; and this duty shall not be performed by deputy. In 21 Hen. VIII. c. 5, as well as in the canons, apparitors are also called summoners or summers. This act was passed for the purpose of restraining the number of apparitors kept by bishops, archdeacons, or their vicars or officials, or other inferior ordinaries. APPEAL. This word is derived immediately from the French Appel or Apel, which is from the Latin Appellatio. The word Appellatio, and the corresponding verb Appellare, had various juridical significations among the Romans. It was used to signify a person's applying to the tribunes for their protection; and also generally to signify the calling or bringing of a person into court to answer for any matter or offence. Under the Empire, Appellatio was the term used to express an application from the decision of an inferior to a superior judge on some sufficient ground. The first title of the 49th book of the Digest is on Appeals APPEAL, in the old Criminal Law of England, was a vindictive action at the suit of the party injured, in which suit the appellant, instead of merely seeking pecuniary compensation, as in civil actions, demanded the punishment of the criminal. It differed from an indictment in some material points. Being a proceeding instituted by a private person in respect of a wrong done to himself, the prerogative of the crown did not go so far as to suspend the prosecution or to defeat it by a pardon. It seems to have been in reference to this peculiarity that the appeal is said to have been called by Chief Justice Holt 66 a noble birthright of the subject," inasmuch as it was the only mode by which the subject could insist upon the rigorous execution of justice without the risk of royal interposition on behalf of the offending party. Even a previous acquittal on an indictment for the same offence was no bar to the prosecution by the appel lant; nor was a previous conviction a bar, where the execution of the sentence |