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seen otherwise than in his full uniform, and with the badges of the orders to which he belonged. "The day of battle," he said, "is the day of honor to the warrior."

CLERGY (from the Latin clerus, derived from the Greek κλῆρος, the share or heritage) signifies the body of ecclesiastical persons, in contradistinction to the laymen. The Greek word was applied in this sense, in order to indicate that this class was to be considered as the particular inheritance and property of God-a metaphor taken from the Old Testament. The clerus was divided, in the ancient church, into the high and low. To the former belonged the bishops, presbyters and deacons; to the latter, all the other ecclesiastical persons. The support of the clergy in different countries constitutes an interesting subject in political political economy, and has been investigated in a work entitled, Remarks on the Consumption of the Public Wealth by the Clergy of every Nation; London, 1822, 2d ed. (See Church, and Ecclesiastical Establishments.) When a Catholic priest receives the tonsure, he repeats a part of the 16th psalm, "The Lord is the portion of mine inheritance," &c. The Catholic clergyman, according to the doctrine of the Roman church, is endowed, in his spiritual character, with a supernatural power, which distinguishes him essentially from the layman, as the power to forgive sins, and to consecrate the bread, so as to convert it into the real body of Christ, &c. CLERGY, BENEFIT OF. (See Benefit of Clergy.)

CLERK, John, of Eldin; the inventor of the modern British system of naval tactics, which is the more remarkable, as he was a country gentleman, not acquainted with navigation. In 1779, he imparted to his friends his new system of breaking through the line of the enemy. Lord Rodney first made use of it, in his victory of A April 12, 1782, over the French, under De Grasse, between Dominica and Les Saintes. Since then, Clerk's principles have been applied by all the English admirals, and lords Howe, St. Vincent, Duncan and Nelson owe to them their most signal victories. (See Playfair's Memoir, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ix., p. 1; also the article Naval Tactics.)

CLEVELAND; a post-town of Ohio, and capital of Cuyahoga county, on lake Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga, at the point where the Ohio canal reaches lake Erie, 60 miles E. of Sandusky, 180 W. S. W. of Buffalo, 160 N. E. of Columbus; lon. 81° 46 W.; lat. 41° 31′ N. It is a flour

ishing town, important from its situation at the termination of the Ohio canal, and from its connexion with the steam-boat navigation from Buffalo, and is one of the most considerable commercial places on lake Erie.

CLEVES, formerly the capital of the dukedom of Cleves, now the chief place of the Prussian circle of the same name (1080 square miles, with 210,000 inhabitants), is situated in a pleasant plain, a league from the Rhine, with which it is connected by a canal. The city contains 1000 houses, with 6000 inhabitants. It has many manufactures, particularly of wool, cotton and silk. The iron sarcophagus of a prince Maurice, of Nassau-Siegen, buried here, is surrounded by Roman urns, inscriptions, lamps, &c., which are found in the neighborhood. rhood. Prussia acquired Cleves as early as 1609; and, after it had changed masters several times, it came again into the possession of this government. It is now a strong fortress, lying on the small river Kermisdal, over against the Netherlands. The German dialect spoken here much resembles the Dutch.

CLIENTS, in ancient Rome, were citizens of the lower ranks, who chose a patron from the higher classes, whose duty it was to assist them in legal cases, to take a paternal care of them, and to provide for their security. The clients, on the other hand, were obliged to portion the daughters of the patron, if he had not sufficient fortune; to ransom him, if taken prisoner, and to vote for him, if he was candidate for an office. Clients and patrons were under mutual obligation not to accuse each other, not to bear witness against each other, and, in general, not to do one another any injury. Romulus, who had established this relation, in order to unite more firmly the patricians and plebeians, made a law that he who had omitted his duty as client or patron might be slain by any body. During a period of 600 years, no instance was known of a disagreement between the clients and patrons. This relation continued till the time of the emperors. It is certainly among the most interesting and curious which history mentions, and must be considered as one of the first attempts at a regular government; as the transition from a patriarchal state, in which family relations are predominant, to a well-developed political system, securing the rights and independence of the individual.-In modern times, the word client is used for a party to a lawsuit, who has put his cause into the hands of a lawyer.

CLIFFORD, George, the third earl of Cumberland of that family, eminent both for his literary and military abilities, was born in Westmoreland, in 1558. He studied at Peterhouse in Cambridge. His attention, at this period, was principally directed to mathematics and navigation, in both which he became a great proficient. In 1586, he took part in the trial of queen Mary Stuart; and, in the course of the same year, sailed to the coast of South America, having under his command a small squadron, which sensibly annoyed the Portuguese trade in that part of the world. Two years afterwards, he commanded a ship in the ever memorable action with the "invincible armada;" and subsequently fitted out, at his own expense, no fewer than nine expeditions to the Western Islands and the Spanish Main, in one of which he succeeded in capturing a valuable plate-ship. His skill in martial exercises and knightly accomplishments on shore was no less distinguished than his naval tactics; and queen Elizabeth, with whom he was in great favor, not only appointed him her champion in the court tournaments, but employed him in the more serious task of reducing the headstrong Essex to obedience. He was made a knight of the garter in 1591. He died Oct. 30, 1605, in London.

CLIFFORD, Anne, a spirited English lady, the only daughter of the above, was born in 1589. Her first husband was Richard, lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl of Dorset, by whom she had three sons, who died young, and two daughters. Her second husband was the eccentric Philip, earl of Pembroke, by whom she had no issue. This lady wrote memoirs of her first husband, as also sundry memorials of herself and progenitors, all of which remain in manuscript. In the course of her life, she built two hospitals, and erected or repaired seven churches. She also erected monuments to the poets Spenser and Daniels, the latter of whom was her tutor. She is, however, more celebrated for a high-spirited reply to sir Joseph Williamson, secretary of state, after the restoration, who had presumed to nominate a candidate for her borough of Appleby :"I have been bullied," she writes, "by a usurper; I have been neglected by a court; but I will not be dictated to by a subject: your man sha'n't stand."

CLIFFS, Or CLAVES; certain indicial characters placed at the beginning of the several staves in a composition, to determine the local names of the notes, and the sounds in the great scale which they are

intended to represent. The three cliffs now in use, viz., the F, or bass cliff, the C, or tenor-cliff, and the G, or treble cliff, by the several situations given them on the stave, furnish us with the means of expressing all the notes within the usual compass of execution, both in vocal and instrumental music, without a confused addition of leger lines, either above or beneath the stave.

CLIFTON, William, was the son of a wealthy mechanic of Philadelphia, and was born in that city in 1772. He early discovered great vivacity and intelligence, and a fondness for literature, but he was brought up in the manners and principles of the stricter order of Quakers, his parents being of that sect. The rupture of a blood-vessel, at the age of 19, debilitated his naturally feeble constitution so much that he was incapacitated for business, and was thus enabled to devote himself more particularly to the literary pursuits, of which he was fond. His first effusions, both in prose and verse, appeared in the newspapers, and other fugitive publications. He afterwards commenced a poem, entitled the Chimeriad, which he did not finish. In this the genius of false philosophy is personified with much spirit and boldness of imagination, under the character of the witch Chimeria. But the best of his productions is perhaps the Epistle to Mr. Gifford, published anonymously in the first American edition of Mr. Gifford's poems. It exhibits the author's poetical thought and power of versification to great advantage. But the hopes of future excellence, which these productions afforded, were not to be gratified. The pulmonary complaints of the author assumed a more decided character, and he died in December, 1799, in the 27th year of his age.

CLIMACTERIC (annus climactericus); a critical year or period in a man's age, wherein, according to astrologers, there is some notable alteration to happen in the body, and a person is exposed to great danger of death. The word comes from κλιμακτήρ, derived from κλίμαξ, a ladder or stairs. The first climacteric is, according to some, the seventh year. The others are multiples of the first, as, 14, 21, &c. 63 and 84 are called the grand climacterics, and the dangers attending these periods are supposed to be great. Some held, according to this doctrine, every seventh year a climacteric; others allowed this title only to the product of the multiplication of the climacterical space by an odd number, as 3, 5, 7, 9. Others considered every ninth year as a climacteric. The idea of climacterics is very ancient.

CLIMATE. The ancients denoted by this name the spaces between the imaginary circles, parallel to the equator, drawn in such a manner over the surface of the earth, that the longest day in each circle is half an hour longer than in the preceding. According to this division, there were twenty-four climates from the equator, where the longest day is 12 hours, to the polar circle, where it is 24 hours. From the polar circle, the longest day increases so rapidly, that, only one degree nearer the pole, it is a month long. The frigid zones, so called, that is, the regions extending from the northern and southern polar circles to the corresponding poles, some geographers have divided again into six climates. We have learned from a more accurate acquaintance with different countries, that heat or cold depends not merely on geographical latitude, but that local causes also produce great variations from the general rule, by which a region lying near the equator should always be warmer than one remote from it. By the word climate, therefore, we understand the character of the weather peculiar to every country, as respects heat and cold, humidity and dryness, fertility, and the alternation of the seasons. The nature of a climate is different according to the different causes which affect it, and the observations hitherto made have led, as yet, to no definite result. In general, however, geographical latitude is the principal circumstance to be taken into view in considering the climate of a country. The highest degree of heat is found under the equator, and the lowest, or the greatest degree of cold, under the poles. The temperature of the intermediate regions is various, according to their position and local circumstances. Under the line, the heat is not ⚫ uniform. In the sandy deserts of Africa, particularly on the western coast, also in Arabia and India, it is excessive. In the mountainous regions of South America, on the contrary, it is very moderate. The greatest heat in Africa is estimated at 70o of Réaumur, or 1891° of Fahrenheit. The greatest degree of cold at the poles cannot be determined, because no one has ever penetrated to them. The greatest altitude of the sun at noon, and the time of its continuance above the horizon, depends altogether on the latitude. Without regard to local circumstances, a country is warmer in proportion as the sun's altitude is greater and the day longer. The elevation of any region above the

surface of the sea has likewise an important influence on the climate. But the nature of the surface is not to be disregarded. The heat increases as the soil becomes cultivated. Thus, for the last thousand years, Germany has been growing gradually warmer by the destruction of forests, the draining of lakes, and the drying up of bogs and marshes. A similar consequence of cultivation seems to be apparent in the cultivated parts of North America, particularly in the Atlantic states. The mass of minerals, which composes the highest layer of a country, has, without doubt, an influence on its temperature. Barren sands admit of a much more intense heat than loam. Meadow lands are not so warm in summer as the bare ground.* The winds, to which a country is most exposed by its situation, have a great influence on the climate. If north and east winds blow frequently in any region, it will be colder, the latitude being the same, than another, which is often swept by milder breezes from the south and west. The influence of the wind on the temperature of a country is very apparent in regions on the sea-coast. The difference in the extremes of temperature is least within the tropics. The heat, which would be intolerable when the sun is in the zenith, is mitigated by the rainy season, which then

commences. When the sun returns to

the opposite half of the torrid zone, so that its rays become less vertical, the weather is delightful. Lima and Quito, in Peru, have the finest climate of any part of the earth. The variations in temperature are greater in the temperate zones, and increase as you approach the polar circles. The heat of the higher latitudes, especially about 59° and 60°, amounts, in July, to 75° or 80° of Fahrenheit, and is greater than that of countries 10o nearer the equator. In Greenland, the heat in

* The cultivation of a new country is often attended by most disastrous consequences, which ought not, always, to be imputed to the improvidence of colonists. The new soil, the moment that it is broken up by the plough, and penetrated by the rays of the sun, must necessarily undergo a strong evaporation, and its exhalations, which are not always of a harmless kind, little elevated in the air, are condensed by the cold, which still continues to be sharp, particularly during the night. Hence arise those epidemic inaladies which nies newly established. The destruction of forests, when carried too far, is followed by pernicious effects. In the Cape de Verd islands, it is the burning of the forests which has dried up the springs, and rendered the atmosphere sultry. Persia, Italy, Greece, and many other countries, have thus been deprived of their delightful climates.

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summer is so great that it melts the pitch on the vessels. At Tornea, in Lapland, where the sun's rays fall as obliquely, at the summer solstice, as they do in Germany at the equinox, the heat is sometimes equal to that of the torrid zone, because the sun is almost always above the horizon. Under the poles, the climate is, perhaps, the most uniform. A greater degree of cold than any we are accustomed to, seems to reign there perpetually. Even in midsummer, when the sun does not go down for a long time (at the poles not for six months), the ice never thaws. The immense masses of it, which surround the poles, feel no sensible effect from the oblique and feeble beams of the sun, and seem to increase in magnitude every year. This is very remarkable; for there is the most undoubted evidence that these now deserted countries were, in former ages, inhabited. But, within a few years, large portions of this continent (if we may SO call it) of ice have separated, and floated down to southern seas. This led the English government to adopt the project of penetrating to the north pole. Captains Ross and Parry, one after the other, have sailed as far as possible into the arctic ocean. (See North Polar Expeditions.)

From the general division of America into lofty mountainous plateaus and very low plains, there results a contrast between two climates, which, although of an extremely different nature, are in almost immediate proximity. Peru, the valley of Quito, and the city Mexico, though situated between

the tropics, owe to their elevation the general temperature of spring. They behold the paramos, or mountain ridges, covered with snow, which continues upon some of the summits almost the whole year, while, at the distance of a few leagues, an intense and often sickly degree of heat suffocates the inhabitants of the ports of Vera Cruz and of Guayaquil. These two climates produce each a different system of vegetation. The flora of the torrid zone forms a border to the fields and groves of Europe. Such a remarkable proximity as this cannot fail of frequently occasioning sudden changes, by the displacement of these two masses of air, so differently constituted-a general inconvenience, experienced over the whole of America. Every where, however, this continent is subject to a lower degree of heat than the same latitudes in the eastern portion of the earth. Its elevation alone explains this fact, as far as regards the mountainous region; but why,

it may be asked, is the same thing true of the low tracts of the country? To this the great observer, Alexander Humboldt, in his Tableaux de la Nature, makes the following reply: "The comparative narrowness of this continent; its elongation towards the icy poles; the ocean, whose unbroken surface is swept by the trade winds; the currents of extremely cold water which flow from the straits of Magellan to Peru; the numerous chains of mountains, abounding in the sources of rivers, and whose summits, covered with snow, rise far above the region of the clouds; the great number of immense rivers, that, after innumerable curves, always tend to the most distant shores; deserts, but not of sand, and consequently less susceptible of being impregnated with heat; impenetrable forests, that spread over the plains of the equator, abounding in rivers, and which, in those parts of the country that are the farthest distant from mountains and from the ocean, give rise to enormous masses of water, which are either attracted by them, or are formed during the act of vegetation, all these causes produce, in the lower parts of America, a climate which, from its coolness and humidity, is singularly contrasted with that of Africa. To these causes alone must we ascribe that abundant vegetation, so vigorous and so rich in juices, and that thick and umbrageous foliage, which constitute the characteristic features of the new continent." To these remarks Malte-Brun adds (Universal Geography, vol. v, book lxxv): "Assuming this explanation as sufficient for South America and Mexico, we shall add, with regard to North America, that it scarcely extends any distance into the torrid zone, but, on the contrary, stretches, in all probability, very far into the frigid zone; and, unless the revived hope of a north-west passage be confirmed, may, perhaps, reach and surround the pole itself. Accordingly, the column of frozen air attached to this continent is no where counterbalanced by a column of equatorial air. From this results an extension of the polar climate to the very confines of the tropics; and hence winter and summer struggle for the ascendency, and the seasons change with astonishing rapidity. From all this, however, New Albion and New California are happily exempt; for, being placed beyond the reach of freezing winds, they enjoy a temperature analogous to their latitude." (For further information, see Malte-Brun's Universal Geography, book xvii, and the article Wind. Respecting the climate of

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CLIMATE CLINICAL MEDICINE.

the U. States, see Darby's View of the U. States, chap. x, Philad. 1828.)

CLIMAX (from the Greek κλίμαξ, a ladder or stairs) and ANTICLIMAX are rhetorical figures; in the former of which the ideas rise in degree; in the latter, they sink. Climax was also the name of several mountains-one in Arabia Felix; another in Pisidia; another in Phœnicia; also of a castle in Galatia; also of a place in Peloponnesus, and another in Libya.

CLINGSTONE. (See Peach.)

CLINICAL MEDICINE (from the Greek κλίνη, a bed) teaches us to investigate, at the bed-side of the sick, the true nature of the disease in the phenomena presented; to note their course and termination; and to study the effects of the various modes of treatment to which they are subjected. From this mode of study we learn the character of individual cases; theoretical study being competent to make us acquainted with species only. Clinical medicine demands, therefore, careful observation. It is, in fact, synonymous with experience. What advances would medicine have made, and from how many errors would it have been saved, if public instruction had always followed this natural course, so that pupils had received none but correct impressions and distinct conceptions of the phenomena of disease, and had attained a practical knowledge

of the application of those rules and precepts, which dogmatical instruction always leaves indefinite! We are unacquainted with the method of clinical instruction in medicine, which was followed by the Asclepiades, but we cannot help admiring the results of it as exhibited to us in the writings of Hippocrates, who augmented the stores of experience inherited from them, by following in their steps. After his time, medicine ceased to be the property of pa particular families, and the path of experience, by which it had been rendered so valuable, was soon deserted. The slow progress of anatomy and physiology, the constant study of the philosophy of Aristotle, and endless disputes respecting the nature of man, of diseases and of remedies, occupied all the attention of physicians; and the wise method of observing and describing the diseases themselves fell into disuse. Hospitals, at their origin, served rather as means of displaying the benevolence of the early Christians than of perfecting the study of medicine. The school of Alexandria was so celebrated, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, that a careful attendance upon its lessons entitled the student to pursue the practice 22

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of medicine. Another old and very thriving, although less known institution, was situated at Nisapour, in Persia; and hospitals, even before the flourishing period of the Arabians, to whom the happy idea is commonly ascribed, were united with these medical institutions. The last school, founded by the emperor Aurelian, and superintended by Greck physicians, spread the doctrines of Hippocrates through all the East. It was supported for several centuries, and in it, without doubt, Rhazes, Ali-Abbas, Avicenna, and the other celebrated Arabian physicians, were instructed. At the same time, the celebrated John Mesue, of Damascus, was at the head of the hospital of Bagdad. Of the mode of instruction pursued there, we know nothing; but we are inclined to form no very elevated opinion of the systems of an age which was devoted to all the dreams of Arabian polypharmacy. In truth, medicine shared the fate of all the other natural sciences in those barbarous ages. Men were little disposed to acquire, slowly and cautiously, the knowledge of disease, at the bedside of the sick, in the manner of the Greek physicians. It appears probable, that the foundation of universities led to a renewed attention to the study of medical science; and we find, accordingly, that in Spain, even under the dominion of the Arabians, there were schools and hospitals for the instruction of young physicians at Seville, Toledo and Cordova. But, even then, clinical studies were almost wholly neglected. Instead of studying the history of diseases, the pupils occupied their time with the most unprofitable pursuits. Not much more advantageous were the journeys which were made for the same objects to Italy and France, in the 11th and 12th centuries. The schools of Paris and Montpellier were those principally resorted to; but in these, the instruction consisted simply in lectures and endless commentaries upon the most obscure subjects; and, even at the close of the 15th century, when the works of the Greek physicians began to be printed, men were still busied with verbal explanations and disputes. Two centuries elapsed before physicians returned to clinical studies and instructions. Among the renovators of this mode of studying medicine may be named, in Holland, William von Straten, Otho Heurnius, and the celebrated Sylvius, about the middle of the 17th century; and it is said that clinical instruction was given, at the same period, in the schools of Hamburg, Vienna and Strasburg. Even Boerhaave,

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