before he had attained the age of 28, is a remarkable proof of early genius in a line of composition demanding great observation and experience. He soon after closed his dramatic career, with the Way of the World, considered, by many critics, as the most perfect of his comedies; but which was, notwithstanding, received so coldly, that he resentfully determined to relinquish a species of writing in which, upon the whole, he had been eminently successful. A masque, entitled the Judgment of Paris, and Semele, an opera, the latter of which was never represented, close the list of his labors for the stage. He, however, continued to write occasional verses on public subjects; and, in 1710, published a collection of his plays and poems, which he dedicated to his early patron, lord Halifax, to whose person and party he remained attached in all fortunes. The remainder of the life of Congreve was spent in polished intercourse and literary leisure; and amidst the fierce party contention which divided almost all the other wits of the day, he pursued a dignified neutrality, and was praised and complimented on both sides. Steele dedicated to him his Miscellanies, and Pope his translation of the Iliad. On the return of his friends to power, he received the additional sinecure of secretary to the island of Jamaica; and, thus rendered affluent, seemed desirous of dropping the character of a man of letters altogether. When Voltaire, in a visit, alluded to his writings, he affected to regard them as trifles beneath him, and hinted that he only expected to be visited as a gentleman. Voltaire replied, that, had he been merely a gentleman, he should never have been desirous of seeing him. His latter years were clouded with sickness and infirmity, and he died in January, 1728-9, in his 60th year, in London. Congreve stands high on the list of English writers of comedy, for which distinction he is indebted less to a lively and humorous delineation of natural character, than to a perpetual reciprocation of wit in his dialogue, united to originality of plot, and to new combinations of factitious manners. He drew little from common life; and if his portraits of sharpers and coquettes-men without principle, and women without delicacy-are just portraitures of the fine gentlemen and ladies of the day, day, the reign of Charles II must have operated most dreadfully on the national character. His Love for Love still occasionally appears; but none of the other pieces can be sufficiently pruned of their licentiousness for modern represen

tation. The Mourning Bride is well constructed; but the florid elevation of the language is in the highest degree unnatural. It has, however, some fine poetic passages. The poetry of Congreve is below mediocrity, with the exception of a few songs and short effusions of gaiety or satire. CONGREVE, sir William, bart.; inventor of the rockets called by his name; born in the county of Middlesex, England, in 1772; coöperated actively in the improvements introduced into the British army by the duke of York; was a member of parliament, general of artillery, inspector of the royal laboratory, &c. In 1816-17, he accompanied the grand prince Nicholas, now emperor of Russia, on his tour through England. In 1824, a company was formed for lighting the principal cities of Europe with gas, of which Congreve was at the head. He wrote an Elementary Treatise on the Mounting of Naval Ordnance (London, 1812), and a Description of the Hydro-Pneumatic Lock (London, 1815). He died at Toulouse, in France, May 16, 1828. The Congreve rockets, first used in the attack of Boulogne, 1806, are of various dimensions, and are differently armed as they are intended for the field or for bombardment. Those of the first sort carry shells or case-shot; the others are armed with a very combustible material, and are called carcass rockets. Their form is cylindrical, and they are composed of strong metallic cases. sticks employed for regulating their flight are of different lengths, according to the size of the rocket. The carcass rockets are armed with strong, iron, conical heads, pierced with holes, and containing a substance as hard and solid as iron itself, which, when once inflamed, is inextinguishable, and scatters its burning particles in every direction. When this substance is consumed, the ball explodes like a grenade. The rocket is projected horizontally, and whizzes loudly as it flies through the air. The ammunition is divided into three classes-heavy, medium and light; the heavy including all above 42 pounds, the medium, those from 42 to 24 pounds, and the light from 18 to 6 pounds inclusive. The English have used them in the field at Leipsic, at the passage of the Adour, &c., and for bombardment at the siege of Copenhagen, &c. They were at first considered a very important invention, but experience has shown that they are made to deviate from their direction by the wind and other causes, and that they sometimes recoil upon their employers. In the field, they are much less effi

The

cient than the common artillery, and, in sieges, do less injury than red-hot shot and bombs. Their composition is not so entirely a secret as is commonly supposed, since they have been imitated by the Austrian, Saxon and other artillerists, and have even received some improvements from the first named.

CONIC SECTIONS. (See Cone.) CONJUGATION. (See Verb, Grammar,

Language.)

CONJUNCTION, in astronomy. (See Aspect.)

CONNANICUT, or CANONICUT; an island belonging to the state of Rhode Island, in Narraganset bay, on the west side of the island of Rhode island; eight miles long, about one in average breadth. It is a beautiful island, of a fertile soil, producing good crops of grass and grain. It contains the town of Jamestown. On the south end, at a place place called Beaver Tail, there is a light-house.

CONNAUGHT; one of the four provinces of Ireland; bounded N. by the Atlantic ocean; E. by the counties of Fermanagh, Cavan, Longford, Westmeath and King's county; S. by the county of Clare and the sea; and W. by the sea. It contains 5 counties, viz., Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo, which include 296 parishes, 4108 square miles, 95,821 houses, 1 archbishopric and 5 bishoprics.

CONNECTICUT; one of the U. States; bounded N. by Massachusetts, E. by Rhode Island, S. by Long Island sound, and W. by New York; lon. 71° 20 to 73° 15/ W.; lat. 41° to 42° 2' N.; 88 miles long, and about 53 in average breadth; square miles, 4828: population, in 1756, 130,611; in 1774, 197,365; in 1782, 209,150; in 1790, 237,946; in 1800, 251,002; in 1810,261,942; in 1820, 275,248; white males, 130,807; white females, 136,374; free colored persons, 7870; slaves, 97; persons engaged in agriculture, 50,518; in manufactures, 17,541; in commerce, 3581: militia, in 1821, 22,100.*-Hartford and New Haven are the seats of the state government. The legislature holds its sessions alternately in the two places. There are five incorporated cities in Connecticut-Hartford, New Haven, Middletown, New London and Norwich; and three boroughs Bridgeport, Stonington and Guilford. There are colleges at New Haven and

* According to a recent account, Connecticut contains 41,416 houses, 2,607,869 acres of land, 1597 mills, 1827 stores and shops, 402 distilleries, 1211 manufactories, 46 fisheries, 33,358 horses,

asses, 219,783 neat cattle, 331,054 sheep, 5048 carriages, &c., 21,369 clocks.

Hartford; and at the latter place, also, an asylum for the education of the deaf and dumb. The state has a fund, which, in 1821, amounted to $1,858,094, the interest of which is appropriated to the support of schools. In no part of the world are the common and useful branches of education more generally understood. The inhabitants are distinguished for their habits of industry and sobriety. The present constitution was framed in 1818. The legislature, styled the general assembly, is composed of a senate of 12 members, and a house of representatives, 80 towns sending each 2 representatives: the other towns, founded since the charter of Charles II, in 1662, send 1 each. The governor, lieutenant-governor, senators, and representatives, are all chosen annually in April. The general assembly has one stated session in each year, on the first Wednesday in May, and such others as they judge necessary. Judges of the supreme and superior courts hold their offices during good behavior, but become disqualified at the age of 70.-No person is compelled to join, or support, or to be classed with or associated to, any congregation, church or religious association; but every person may be compelled to pay his proportion of the expenses of the society to which he may belong; but he may separate himself from the society by leaving a written notice of his wish with the clerk of such society. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, Housatonic, Thames, Farmington and Naugatuck. The principal harbors are those of New London and New Haven. The face of the country is greatly diversified by mountains, hills and valleys. There are but few level tracts, and no considerable mountains. The greatest elevation is a range of small mountains on the west side of Connecticut river, being a continuation of the Green mountains. The hills are generally of moderate size, and occur in quick succession, presenting to the traveller an ever-varying prospect. The soil is generally fertile, ile, though mixed with portions that are comparatively thin and barren, and the whole is well watered. It is generally in a state of good cultivation, resembling, in many parts, a well-cultivated garden. The principal productions are Indian corn, rye, wheat in many parts, oats, barley, buckwheat, flax in large quantities, some hemp, potatoes, pumpkins, turnips, peas, beans, &c. Orchards are very numerous, and cider is made for exportation. The state

inter

is, however, generally better adapted to grazing than to tillage; and its fine meadows and pastures enable the farmers to feed great numbers of neat cattle, horses and sheep. The quantity of butter and cheese made annually is great, and of well-known excellence. Beef and pork of superior quality are also abundant. The state is generally laid out in small farms, from 50 to 300 and 400 acres.

as

It

the

is intersected by numerous roads, which are generally kept in good repair. Though exposed to the extremes of heat and cold, and to sudden changes of temperature, the country is very healthful. The northwest winds, which prevail during the winter, are keen, but the serenity of the sky, during the same season, makes amends, in some degree, for the severity of the weather. In the maritime towns, the weather is particularly variable, changing wind blows from sea or land: in the inland country, it is less so. The foreign trade of this state is principally with the West Indies; but its coasting trade is the most considerable. Its exports consist of beef, pork, cattle, horses, mules, butter, cheese, maize, rye, flax-seed, fish, candles and soap. Almost all the produce of the western part of the state is carried to New York. The manufacturing industry of Connecticut is greater, in proportion to the population, than that of any other state in the union, except Rhode Island. The manufactures consist of cotton and woollen goods, tin-ware, iron, gin, glass, paper, snuff, powder, leather, shoes, clocks, buttons, fire-arms, carriages, &c. Mines of different kinds have been found in this state, but, in general, they have not been wrought to any considerable extent, with the exception of iron ore, which abounds in Salisbury and Kent, of an excellent quality, and is also found in other places. There is a lead mine on the Connecticut, two miles from Middletown, which was wrought during the revolutionary war. Copper mines have been discovered and opened in several places, but, having proved unprofitable, they have been neglected. Marble is found in Washington, Milford, Brookfield and New Milford; porcelain clay in New Milford and Cornwall; black lead in New Milford and Marlborough; cobalt in Chatham; and excellent freestone in Chatham, Haddam and East Hartford. There are several mineral springs, but none of much note, except those of Stafford and Suffield. The one at Stafford is the most celebrated in New England.

The constitutions of the colony on the banks of the Connecticut, of the years 1638

and 1650, and the most ancient record of the colony of New Haven (q. v.), are of no little historical interest, as indications of the deep feeling of the necessity of laws in the mind of man, and of the stern and sombre religious spirit of the first settlers of those colonies. The chapter of capitall lawes, in the code of 1650, is almost verbally copied from the Mosaic law. It inflicts death, among other offences, for the worshipping of any other god but the Lord God; being a witch, that is, consulting with a familiar spirit; blaspheming the name of God the Father, Son or Holy Ghost; adultery, rape, sodomy, stealing; bearing false witness, in order to take away another man's life; cursing of parents by a child above 16; or on a son who manifests a stubborn and rebellious spirit after having been chastised by his parents, &c. The plantation covenant, recorded in the oldest record of the colony of New Haven, is one of the purest specimens of the contrat social of Rousseau. (See New Haven.) A small work, published in 1825 (Hartford, by Silas Andrus), affords a curious illustration of the character of the early settlers of Connecticut. The title is thus: - The Code of 1650, being a Compilation of the earliest Laws and Orders of the General Court of Connecticut; also the Constitution, or Civil Compact entered into and adopted by the Towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield, in 1638-9: to which are added some Extracts from the Laws and Judicial Proceedings of New Haven Colony, commonly called Blue Laws. (For the blue laws, see New Haven.) CONNECTICUT; the great river of New England. It has its source on the north border of New Hampshire, and separates New Hampshire from Vermont, passes through Massachusetts and Connecticut, and flows into Long Island sound, between Saybrook and Lime. Its general course is S. by W. till it reaches Middletown (Connecticut), after which it has a S. S. E. course to its mouth. Its whole length is 410 miles. It is navigable for vessels drawing 10 feet of water to Middletown, 36 miles; for those drawing 8 feet, to Hartford, 50 miles; and, by means of locks and canals, it has been rendered navigable to the Fifteen Mile falls, Bath (New Hampshire), 250 miles above Hartford. The boats which navigate the river carry from 12 to 20 tons in descending, and about two thirds as much in returning. The falls which have been rendered passable by artificial means are those at Enfield (Connecticut), the Willemantic falls, those at South Hadley, Montague, Walpole, Plainfield and Lebanon. Of these, Bellows falls, at Walpole, are the most remarkable. According to a survey made in 1824, the falls in the Connecticut, between Hanover (New Hampshire) and Enfield (Connecticut), measure 371 feet. On these falls were locks measuring 218 feet, viz., at South Hadley, 50 feet; Nutter's falls, 71 feet; Bellows falls, 481; Waterqueechy, 124; and White river, 36 feet. The Connecticut flows through a fine country. The land bordering upon it is generally of an excellent quality; and there are upon its banks many beautiful and flourishing towns; among which are Haverhill, Hanover, Charlestown and Walpole (New Hampshire); Newbury, Windsor and Brattleborough (Vermont); Greenfield, Hadley, Northampton and Springfield (Massachusetts); Hartford and Middletown, &c. (Connecticut).

CONON, an Athenian commander, was one of the generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the command of the fleet in the Peloponnesian war, and, engaging Callicratidas, was defeated; but afterwards gained a victory, in which the Spartan commander lost his life. On the subjugation of Athens, B. C. 405, he remained at Cyprus, forming plans for the restoration of the prosperity of his country. By persuading Artaxerxes, king of Persia, that the superiority of the Lacedæmonians was injurious to the safety of his dominions, and that they could only be checked by rendering the Athenians able to oppose them, he procured the command of a Persian fleet, B. C. 398, attacked the Spartan admiral Pisander near Cnidos, and, killing him with his own hand, defeated the Spartans, who lost the greatest part of their fleet. The empire of the sea was immediately transferred, and the power of the Lacedæmonians in Asia Minor immediately ceased. Conon then returned to Attica, and employed his sailors and workmen in restoring the fortifications of Athens. He fell a prey to the hatred and envy of the Lacedæmonians, who, in a treaty of peace with the Persians, accused him of plotting the delivery of Æolia and Ionia to his countrymen, and of the misappropriation of the king's money and forces. He was accordingly apprehended, and, as some writers relate, was put to death at Susa; others say that he made his escape; but the event is doubtful.

CONQUEST. By conquest is now generally understood the right over property acquired in war, or by superior force. In the feudal law, it had a somewhat different sense, meaning any means of acquir

ing an estate out of the common course of inheritance. (2 Bl. Comm. 243.) The right of conquest has been deduced as an inference of natural law, from the right to weaken our enemy, to compel him to make compensation for injuries, to force him to an equitable peace, and to deter or prevent him from future injuries. It presupposes a just war, and a right of appropriation growing out of it. It is now generally admitted as a part of the law of nations. If a war be unjust, it is plain that it can receive no sanction from the law of nature or the law of nations; and, therefore, no just acquisitions can arise from it. But who is to decide whether the war be just or unjust? If neutral nations attempt to decide the question without consent, they draw themselves into the quarrel, and may be involved in the war. The parties who wage war never avow that they are acting unjustly, and will not admit any superior, who has a right to decide such questions for them. Nations claim a perfect equality and independence, and therefore will not submit to the decision of any other sovereign. The only answer, in a practical view, that can be given to the question is, that every free and sovereign state must decide for itself, whether it is carrying on a just war, and what are the duties required of it in such a war. With a view to public safety and repose, neutral nations are understood to be bound to act upon certain rules, which may be called the voluntary law of nations. Among these rules the following are universally admitted:-1. that every regular war, as to its effects, is to be deemed, by neutral nations, just on both sides; 2. that whatever is permitted to the one to do, in virtue of the state of war, is also permitted to the other; 3. that the acquisitions made by each belligerent in the war are to be held lawful, and to be respected; 4. that neutral nations are bound to impartiality in their conduct to each of the belligerents. Many questions are discussed by jurists, in respect to the rights of conquest, some of which are of great nicety and subtilty. To enumerate them, without adverting to the various shades of opinion, would itself occupy a large discourse. We shall content ourselves, therefore, by enumerating a few only of the principles, which, by the benignity of religion and the enlarged influence of knowledge and public opinion, are now generally received among civilized nations. Conquest may respect either persons or things. It may respect movable or immovable property. It may apply to a whole nation, or only to a sin