and the murderers, and prevented the execution of their purpose; but he was again condemned to death, and executed Sept. 25. From the scaffold he cried with a firm voice to the multitude, "I die, as I have lived, faithful to God and to my king." CAZWINI, Zacharia Ben Mohammed, an Arabian naturalist, descended from a family of lawyers, who derived their origin from Anas Ben Malek, a companion of Mohammed, and had settled in Caswin, a city in Persia. From that place this author received the surname under which he has become celebrated. Of the circumstances of his life, we know only that he was cadi of Wazith and Hillah, and died in the year of the hegira 682 (A. D. 1283). His most important work is on natural history-The Wonders of Nature and the Peculiarities of Creation of which Ideler, professor in the university of Berlin, has published the chapter on the Constellations of the Arabians, and of which there are fragments in Bochart's Hierozoikon, in Ouseley's Oriental Collections, and in Wahl's, Jahn's and De Sacy's Arab. Chrestomathias. It was the object of Cazwini, like Pliny, to describe the wonders of all nature. His work contains a comprehensive view of all that had been written before him, but in so grand and original a manner, that it is of higher value than most of the original works which treat of the same subjects. There is an abridged translation of it in the Persian. CEBES of Thebes was a disciple of Socrates. He is said to have saved Phædon, a young slave, from moral ruin. Nothing more is known of his life. Three dialogues-Hebdome, Phrynichus, and Pinax, or the Picture-are ascribed to him; but most critics regard the latter as the work of a later Cebes, or of a Stoic philosopher under this assumed name. Since the revival of learning, this interesting dialogue has been often reprinted by itself, or in connexion with the writings of Epictetus, Theognis, Pythagoras, &c. Among the larger editions is that of Schweighäuser (Strasburg, 1806). There are many school editions. CECIL, William (lord Burleigh). This eminent English statesman was son to Richard Cecil, master of the robes to Henry VIII, and was born at Bourne, in Lincolnshire, in 1520. He studied at St. John's college, Cambridge, whence he removed to Gray's Inn, with a view to prepare himself for the practice of the law. Having carried on a successful controversy with two Irish priests on the subject of the pope's supremacy, he obtained the no tice of the king; and, being presented with the reversion of the office of custos brevium, was encouraged to push his fortune at court. Having married the sister of sir John Cheke, he was, by his brotherin-law, recommended to the earl of Hertford, afterwards the protector Somerset. Having lost his first wife, he took for a second the daughter of sir Anthony Cooke, director of the studies of Edward VI; and, by his alliance with this lady, herself eminent for learning, still further increased his influence. He rose, in 1547, to the post of master of requests, and, soon after, to that of secretary. He endured, in this reign, some of the vicissitudes which befell his patron Somerset, but always recovered his standing, and, in 1551, was knighted, and sworn a member of the privy council. His declining to aid the proclamation of lady Jane Grey, secured him a gracious reception from queen Mary, although he forfeited his office because he would not change his religion. In 1555, he attended cardinal Pole and the other commissioners appointed to treat for peace with France; and, on his return, being chosen knight of the shire for the county of Lincoln, distinguished himself by opposing a bill brought in for the confiscation of estates on account of religious principles. His foresight led him into a timely correspondence with the princess Elizabeth, previously to her accession; to whom, in her critical situation, his advice was exceedingly serviceable. On her accession, in 1558, he was appointed privy counsellor and secretary of state. One of the first acts of her reign was the settlement of religion, which Cecil conducted with great skill and prudence, considering the difficulties to be encountered. In foreign affairs, he showed much tact in guarding against the danger arising from the Catholic powers, and very judiciously lent support to the reformation in Scotland. The general tenor of Cecil's policy was cautious, and rested upon an avoidance of open hostilities, and a reliance on secret negotiation and intrigues with opposing parties in the neighboring countries, with a view to avert the dangers which threatened his own. This, upon the whole, was a course almost necessary, considering the situation of England, with a powerful, dissatisfied party at home, much dangerous enmity on the part of Catholic Europe, and an alliance existing between Scotland and France. On the suppression of the northern rebellion, in 1571, Elizabeth raised him to the peerage by the title of baron Burleigh, and, the following year, made him a knight of the garter. He is charged with being deeply engaged in fomenting the troubles which caused the flight of the imprudent and unhappy Mary Stuart into England; and, after the discovery of Babington's conspiracy, he never ceased urging her trial and condemnation. He endured, for a short time, the hypocritical resentment of Elizabeth at the execution of the queen of Scots, but, after a while, recovered his former credit. At the time of the threatened Spanish invasion, he drew up the plan for the defence of the country with his usual care and ability. But, soon after, losing his wife, to whom he was warmly attached, he became desirous of retiring from public business, and of leaving the field open to his son Robert, afterwards so celebrated as earl of Salisbury. He was persuaded, however, to keep his employment, and one of his latest efforts was to effectuate a peace with Spain, in opposition to the more heated councils of the earl of Essex. This great minister died in the bosom of his family, and in the possession of all his honors, in 1598, being then in his 77th year. He left behind him the character of the ablest minister of an able reign. How far the emergencies of the period ought to excuse a portion of his dark and crooked policy, it may be difficult to determine. But it is easy to decide, that almost every school of politicians, under similar çircumstances, have countenanced similar laxity under the plea of expediency. The private character of Burleigh was highly regarded; for, although he failed not to improve his opportunities as a courtier, he always exhibited a probity which conciliated esteem. He possessed, in a high degree, the solid learning, gravity and decorum, which, in that age, usually accompanied elevated station. In his mode of living, he was noble and splendid, but, at the same time, economical, and attentive to the formation of a competent fortune for his family. His early occupation as a statesman precluded much attention to literature; but he is mentioned as the author of a few Latin verses, and of some historical tracts. A great number of his letters on business are still extant. CECIL, Robert, earl of Salisbury, second son of lord Burleigh, was born, according to some accounts, about the year 1550; but his birth may, with more probability, be placed 13 years later. He was deformed, and of a weak constitution; on which account he was educated at home, till his removal to the university of Cambridge. Having received the honor of knighthood, he went to France as assistant to the English ambassador, the earl of Derby, and, in 1596, was appointed one of the secretaries of state. On the death of sir Francis Walsingham, he succeeded hinı as principal secretary, and continued to be a confidential minister of queen Elizabeth to the end of her reign. Having secretly supported the interests of James I, previous to his accession to the crown, and taken measures to facilitate that event, he was continued in office under the new sovereign, and raised to the peerage. In 1603, he was created a baron; in 1604, viscount Cranbourn; and in 1605, earl of Salisbury. The same year he was chosen chancellor of the university of Cambridge, and made a knight of the garter. He was the political rather than the personal favorite of the king, whom he served with zeal and fidelity; and, as he was certainly the ablest, so he was, perhaps, the most honest, minister who presided over the affairs of state during that reign. In 1608, on the decease of the lord high treasurer the earl of Dorset, that office was bestowed on lord Salisbury, who held it till his death, in 1612. This event took place at Marlborough, as he was returning to London from Bath, whither he had gone in a very debilitated state of health, to use the mineral waters. An interesting account of this journey, and of the last hours of this eminent statesman, drawn up by one of his domestics, may be found in Peck's Desiderata Curiosa. Lord Salisbury was the author of a Treatise against the Papists; and of Notes on Dee's Discourse on the Reformation of the Calendar; and some of his letters, despatches and speeches in parliament have been published. CECILIA. There are several saints of this name in the Catholic church. The most celebrated, who has been falsely regarded as the inventress of the organ, and who is the patron saint of music, is said to have suffered martyrdom A. D. 220. Her pagan parents, says the legend, betrothed her, contrary to her wishes, to Valerian, a young pagan. But she had internally vowed to the Lord a perpetual virginity; and, whilst the instruments sounded, she sang in her heart only to the Lord (cantantibus organis, illa in corde suo soli Domino cantabat, dicens, &c.); that is, she prayed-O Lord, allow my heart and my body to remain unpolluted. As soon as the bridegroom appeared, she forbade his approach, assuring him that an angel of the Lord protected her innocence. The unbelieving Valerian wished to convince himself of this assertion; she referred him to the bishop Urban, who was concealed among the tombs of the martyrs, and who instructed him in the Christian religion, and aptized him. When he returned to the bride, he saw the protecting angel, who presented them both with crowns of heavenly roses and lilies. Valerian now induced his brother Tubirtus to embrace the Christian faith. The Roman prefect Almachius caused both brothers to be beheaded, as zealous professors of Christianity. Life was to be given to Cecilia if she would sacrifice to the heathen gods. But she remained firm in her belief. Upon this, the tyrant caused her to be shut up in a bath of boiling water, in which she was found, the day after, fter, unhurt. The executioner was then directed to behead her: he inflicted three blows, but was not able to separate the head from the body. She lived for three days, exhorting the faithful and giving alms to the poor. As early as the 5th century, we find a church in Rome dedicated to her. Pope Paschalis, who was very anxious to gather relics, endeavored to discover her body. She appeared to him, as he relates in his letters, while he was sleeping, and pointed out the place of her sepulchre. Paschalis caused the body to be disinterred in 821, and placed it in the church which he rebuilt, where her monument is still to be seen. How Cecilia came to be the patron-saint of music is not agreed. The various opinions, however, seem to be united in this point, that it was either through a misunderstanding, or through an allegorical interpretation of the words above cited from her legend. Her worship, in this character, is very ancient. Among the poets, Chaucer, Dryden in his Alexander's Feast, and Pope, have sung her praises. Raphael, Domenichino, Dolce and Mignard have represented her in celebrated paintings. In the picture of Raphael, she appears as the personification of heavenly devotion. This is, indeed, a heavenly picture. CECROPS, the founder of Athens, arrived there about 1550 B. C., from Sais, at the mouth of the Nile (this emigration, however, has been questioned by some late writers, e. g. Ottfried Müller), taught the savage inhabitants religion and morals, made them acquainted with the advantages of social life, laid the foundation of the future city of Athens (Cecropia), and built 11 other places, whose inhabitants he instructed in agriculture. He also planted the olive, and consecrated it to Minerva, the patron goddess of Athens. He then introduced into his adopted country the art of ship-building, and thus laid the foundation of its commerce. He died after a reign of 50 years. His monument was erected in the temple of Minerva; but, to preserve his memory always fresh in their minds, the people consecrated to him the constellation of Aquarius. (See Attica.) The researches which are making among the records of Egyptian history, since the key to their mysterious language has been discovered by the skilfully directed efforts of Young, De Sacy, Zoega, Champollion, and others, will undoubtedly throw great light on the progress of civilization from Egypt to Greece, described in the half mythological, half historical tales of the latter country. CECROPIA. (See Athens, vol. i. p. 442.) CEDAR; a name given to several species of juniper, to a species of pine, the cedar of Lebanon, and to the cupressus thuyoides. It is an evergreen, and of great durability. The most celebrated kind is the Cedar-Larch, or Cedar of Lebanon (pinus cedrus, L.), distinguished, by its strong, ramose branches, from all other trees of the same genus. The general character of the shoot, even when the tree is young, is singularly bold and picturesque, and quite peculiar to the species. The tree is a native of the coldest part of the mountains of Libanus, Amanus and Taurus; but it is not now to be found in those places in great numbers. Maundrell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, in 1696, could reckon only 16 large trees, though many small ones. The forest of Libanus seems never to have recovered from the havoc made by Solomon's forty score thousand hewers. Beautiful specimens of this noble tree are to be seen at Witton park, Zionhouse, &c., in England, where it seems to have been introduced in 1683, and where, as professor Martyn observes, there are probably, at present, more cedars than in Palestine. White-Cedar (cupressus thuyoides) is a small or middle-sized evergreen, naturally forming an elegant head. Its branches are not pendulous. Its leaves are of a delicate green color. It is a native of North America, China and Cochin China. In the U. States, it occupies large tracts, denominated cedar-swamps. The wood is soft, smooth, of an aromatic smell, and internally of a red color. It is permanent in shape, and very durable, and is esteemed as a material for fences. Large quantities of shingles are made of it. It is a favorite material for wooden wares, or the nicer kinds of coopers' work. Red or Common Cedar (juniperus Virginiana); a native of North America and the West Indies. It is distinguished by its leaves, growing in threes, and being fixed by their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones spreading. The trunk is straight, and knotted by small branches. The heartwood is of a bright red, smooth, and moderately soft. This wood is in much request for the outsides of black-lead pencils. On account of its powerful fragrance, it is often used for the bottoms of drawers, because it resists the attacks of insects. Some years ago, it was in great esteem for wainscotting and cabinet-work, but has been much neglected since the introduction of mahogany. The name of savin is, in some places improperly applied to this Unlike the white cedar, it grows in the driest and most barren soils. For posts of buildings, it is much in request; but it is difficult to obtain it of large size. tree. CEFALONIA. (See Cephalonia.) CELEBES; an island in the East Indian sea, of an irregular shape, about 500 miles long, and about 200 broad, called, by the natives and Malays, Negree Oran Buggess, and, sometimes, Tanna Macassar; square miles, about 90,000. It is divided into six states or kingdoms, viz., Goa, Bony, Wajoo, Sopin, Selindrin and Mandar. Goa extends a considerable way along the west and south, and contains, besides Macassar, two Dutch forts, Bontyn and Bulo Cumbo. The government is monarchical, and the king is called karuang, and, sometimes, rajah Goa. Bony, or Pony, is E. of Goa, entirely under the influence of the Dutch, and is governed by a prince, called pajong, who is elected for life by seven orancayos, or nobles.-Wajoo, or Warjoo, or Tuadjoo, is situated N. of Bony, and is governed by a prince elected for life by the orancayos.Sopin is situated in the centre of the island, towards the eastern side, to the E. of Bon. -Selindrin is of small consideration, and is N. W. of Sopin.-Mandar lies on the W. and N. W. coast. The inhabitants are Mohammedans. The heat of this island would be excessive if it were not moderated by abundant rains. The trees are always green; fruit and flowers grow in all seasons; jasmines, roses, carnations, and other beautiful flowers, grow without culture; orange-trees and citrons shade the ground, with mangoes, bananas, and other fruits. Cotton-trees cover the extensive plains. It produces no spice except pepper. The inhabitants raise a great number of cattle: the oxen are larger than those The of Europe. In the forests are large herds of deer, wild hogs, and a great variety of monkeys, large and ferocious; some with tails, and some without; some walking upon four legs, others upon two. principal articles which the Dutch obtain from this island are rice, gold, ivory, deals and sandal wood; cotton, camphor, ginger, long pepper and pearls. The Dutch are said to have had 370 towns and villages under their control. Their principal settlement is at Macassar. Lat. 2o N. to 5° 40′ S.; lon. 118° 40′ to 124° 15/ Е. CELESTINE. Two popes of this name are saints. The first was elected pope Nov. 3, 422, and followed,Boniface I. There is a decretal letter of this pope extant, directed to the bishops of Vienna and Narbonne, prohibiting the bishops from wearing a dress distinguishing them from the people, and forbidding the choice of strangers for bishops, to the displeasure of their flocks. The consent of the people, of the clergy, and of the magistrate, he says, is necessary to a choice. He died April 6, 432. His letters are preserved in the collection of D. Constant, folio, and in the collection of the councils. Celestine V was also a saint. He was chosen pope July 5, 1294, before which time he was called Peter of Murrhone. He lived as a hermit on Monte di Magella, in continual fasting and penance, and was entirely unfit for the papal chair, on account of his utter ignorance of business and of the world. He never would have been chosen, had not the papal chair been vacant for 27 months, on account of the cardinals being divided into two parties. When Celestine entered Aquila, he rode on an ass, led by two kings. He soon found the burden of business too heavy, and abdicated his dignity Dec. 13, 1294. Boniface VIII succeeded him, and kept him prisoner till his death, May 19, 1296. The greatest simplicity marks the government of this pope. He is the founder of the Celestines. (q. v.) CELESTINES (from their founder, pope Celestine V, q. v.), the hermits of St. Damian, a religious order, instituted about the middle of the 13th century, in Italy, followed the rule of St. Benedict (q. v.), wore white garments with black capes and scapularies, and were devoted entirely to a contemplative life. In the beginning of the 18th century, the order was diminished to the number of 96 monasteries in Italy, and 21 in France. This society of gloomy monks appears recently to have become still smaller. In France, it no longer exists. CELIBACY [written by a Catholic]. One of the sublime ideas of the Catholic church is its veneration of chastity. This places Christianity in the most striking opposi tion to the sensual religions of the pagan world. Whilst the pagans lowered their gods to the human standard, Christianity directed men's views to heaven, and idealized human nature. St. Paul (1 Cor. 7) recommends virginity, without condemning matrimony. The Catholic church respects matrimonial chastity, but esteems virginity a higher virtue, as a sacrifice of the pleasures of this life to purity of soul, as the victory of the moral nature over the physical. With these sublime views of this virtue, it is not wonderful that it was required of the priests, who officiate in the high mystery of the eucharist. From the time of the apostles, it became a custom in the church for bishops, priests and deacons to renounce the joys of matrimonial love at their consecration, and to devote themselves entirely to the duties of their office. One point only was disputed, whether clergymen were to be merely prohibited from marrying, or whether even those who were married before their consecration, should be required to separate themselves from their wives. At the general council of Nice, several bishops proposed that the bishops, priests and deacons, who had received the holy consecration, should be directed, by an express ordinance, to give up their wives. But Paphnutius, bishop of Upper Thebais, contended that cohabitation with a wife was a state of chastity. It was sufficient, he said, according to the ancient traditions of the church, that clergymen should not be permitted to marry; but he who had been married before his consecration ought by no means to be separated from his lawful wife. As it became the general opinion, that a clergyman could not marry, it soon became the general practice to refuse consecration to married men. By this means, uniformity was effected. As for the bishops, it soon became a inatter beyond dispute. After the institution of monachism had become firmly established, and the monks were regarded with veneration, on account of their vow of perpetual chastity, public opinion exacted from the secular clergy the same observance of celibacy. The holy father Epiphanius assures us that, by the ecclesiastical laws, celibacy was commanded, and that, wherever this command was neglected, it was a corruption of the church. The particular council of Elvira commanded all bishops, presbyters, deacons and subdeacons to abstain from their wives, under penalty of exclusion from the clergy. In the Western church, celibacy was rigorously required. Pope Cyricius, at the end of the 4th century, forbade the clergy to marry, or to cohabit with their wives, if already married. At the same time, the monks received consecration, which increased the conformity between them and the secular clergy still further, and indirectly obliged the latter to observe celibacy. Several popes and particular councils repeated this injunction. The emperor Justinian declared all children of clergymen illegitimate, and incapable of any hereditary succession or inheritance. The council of Tours, in 566, issued a decree against married monks and nuns, declaring that they should be publicly excommunicated, and their marriage formally dissolved. Seculars, deacons and subdeacons, who were found to dwell with their wives, were interdicted the exercise of spiritual functions for the course of a year. In Spain, the bishops were ordered to enforce celibacy upon their abbots, deacons, &c., once a year, in their sermons; for, in that country, many priests, formerly Arians, and newly-converted, refused to give up their wives, conformably to the requisitions of the Catholic church. As in other points, in this, also, the Greek church dissented from the Roman. The (Trullan) council of Constantinople, in 692, in its 13th canon, declares, "Having heard that the Roman church has ordered the priests and deacons to relinquish their lawful wives, we, assembled in this council, hereby decree, that priests and deacons, according to the ancient custom of the church, and the institution of the holy apostles, may live with their wives like the laity. We hereby forbid any one to refuse the consecration of a priest or deacon on account of his being married, and cohabiting with his wife, after he has requested consecration. We will by no means be unjust to marriage, nor separate what God has united." These regulations are still in force in the Greek church; and, while celibacy is required of the bishops and monks; priests and deacons, if married before consecration, are allowed to continue in the state of matrimony. This is not a reason for saying that the Roman church introduced celibacy; she has only retained it, as an old apostolical tradition, to which she has added the rule, not to consecrate married men, unless the wife enter a religious order. As no one has a right to demand to be consecrated a priest, the Roman church has, by this addition, violated no one's right. The West |