luxury, licentiousness, and the splendor of political eloquence, which (particularly in Athens, where it was favored by democratic institutions, and had arrived at its full maturity) invited to such a study (in the 84th Olympiad, or B. C. 440). As art naturally precedes science, the practice of eloquence is of earlier origin than the rules of rhetoric. The rhetoricians drew their rules and examples from the master-works of the orators, whose name (pnropes) was afterwards applied to them. But this mode of proceeding was changed about the time of the Ptolemies, when two ingenious and learned critics, Aristophanes and Aristarchus, taught in Alexandria. They selected ten Attic orators (whose lives are given in a work ascribed to Plutarch) as models of imitation, whose works they analyzed, and from them derived their principles. But while the art of oratory was older than the science of rhetoric, the latter long survived the former, continuing its instructions even to the time of Theodosius the Great. Eloquence flourished at Athens only 150 years, and perished, with every thing noble and great, on the overthrow of liberty, under whose patronage it had flourished, and whom it in turn defended. It was carried to Asia Minor, Rhodes, where Eschines introduced it at the time of his banishment, and other islands, but, in these wanderings, lost its original charms, and was corrupted by foreign manners. Thus arose the distinction of the Attic, Asiatic and Rhodian orators. A sparing use of ornament, combined with a judicious abstinence from striking contrasts, characterized the Attic style. The Asiatic eloquence indulged in a greater fulness of expression, and a free use of rhetorical ornaments. The Asiatic orators, particularly those of Lycia and Caria, were addicted to a sort of rhythmical close of their sentences. The Rhodian eloquence is said to have preserved a medium between these two. Eloquence was finally transplanted to Rome by Greek teachers, where it shone with a new splendor; and Cicero appeared as the greatest public orator of his country. But here, also after arriving at the highest perfection, it begar gradually to decline; for, when freedom of speech was restrained, public eloquence ceased to be esteemed. The old sophists certainly did an important service by the establishment of schools of oratory: at one time, they were the only public teachers of rhetoric, and they encouraged the youth to aim at the glory of eloquence, both by instruc

tion and practice, and by their own ex ample, as declaimers (declamatores). The sophists were distinguished by a purple gown, which was a sort of official dress. At Athens, no one, and particularly no foreigner, was allowed to assume this dress without the consent of the fraternity of the sophists, and without having been admitted into the order: the Roman emperors also prohibited those who were not regularly qualified from teaching declamation. Besides other secret usages in the Greek ceremony of admission, the candidates were led to a public bath. After the bath, the person received the mantle, by the authority of the president of the department of eloquence, to whom he paid a large fee for this permission. With the mantle, the initiated person received the dignity and name of a sophist. They, who in this manner had obtained the rank of a rhetorician, spent their time in teaching oratory, and engaged in various rhetorical exercises with their scholars. The principal design of rhetorical instruction was to prepare the scholars for conducting legal processes, in which every thing was transacted orally. Those who, in the rhetorical schools, practised themselves in speaking upon supposed cases, and their pupils, were called scholastics; but this name was finally brought into contempt. The rhetorical instruction of the sophists consisted chiefly in arts of deception, in the means of blinding one's adversary, and ensnaring him by sophistical subtleties and quibbles. They required a large fee, which was paid beforehand. In later times, the Grecian and Latin rhetoricians were paid by the Roman emperois (first under Vespasian). The rhetoricians also wrote speeches for others. Antiphon was the first who composed forensic speeches for the use of others With an oration of Lysias, Iphicrates very often gained the advantage over his ad versary. Anytus, by a speech prepared for him by the sophist Polycrates, obtained the condemnation of Socrates, who disdained to use one written for him by Lysias. Dinarchus became rich by composing orations for others. The prices paid for them were high, and many writers obtained so much celebrity as to be constantly occupied in this way. At length this traffic fell into merited contempt, and many great men avoided leaving written speeches, from fear of being reproached as sophists.

RHEUMATISM; a disease attended with sharp pains, which has so much resemblance to the gout, that some physicians

have considered it as not an entirely distinct disease; although they are by no means to be confounded. (See Gout.) Rheumatism is distinguished into acute and chronic. The former is of short continuance, and either shifting to different parts of the body or confined to a particular part: in the latter case, it has a tendency to pass into the chronic, unless properly attended to: it is often attended with fever, or sometimes comes on in the train of a fever. This combination of rheumatism with fever is called rheumatic fever, which is considered by physicians a distinct species. Chronic rheumatism is attended with pains in the head, shoulders, knees, and other large joints, which, at times, are confined to one particular part, and at others shift from one joint to another, without occasioning any fever; and in this manner the complaint continues often for a considerable time, and at length goes off. No danger is attendant on chronic rheumatism; but a person having been once attacked with it, is ever afterwards more or less liable to returns of it. Neither is the acute rheumatism frequently accompanied with much danger. The acute is preceded by shivering, heat, thirst, and frequent pulse; after which the pain commences, and soon fixes on the joints. The chronic rheumatism is distinguished by pain in the joints, without fever, and is divided into three species; lumbago, affecting the loins; sciati a, affecting the hip; and arthrodynia, or pains in the joints. The acute rheumatism mostly terminates in one of these species. Rheumatism may arise at all times of the year, when there are frequent vicissitudes of the weather from heat to cold, but the spring and autumn are the seasons in which it is most prevalent; and it attacks persons of all ages; but very young people are less subject to it than adults. Obstructed perspiration, occasioned either by wearing wet clothes, lying in damp linen, or damp rooms, or by being exposed to cool air when the body has ↑ been much heated by exercise, is the cause which usually produces rheumatism. Those who are much afflicted with this complaint, are very apt to be sensible of the approach of wet weather, by finding wandering pains about them at that period. Rheumatism usually attacks only the external muscular parts, but has sometimes been known to affect the internal parts, especially the serous membranes, the pleura, the peritonæum, the dura mater.

RHIGAS, Constantine, the Tyrtæus of modern Greece, the first mover of the war for Grecian independence, was born about

1753, at Velestini, a small city of Thessaly, and was early distinguished for talent. As he was not rich enough to devote himself to literature, he engaged in commerce, went to Bucharest, and remained there until 1790. He made himself intimately acquainted with the literature of ancient Greece. Latin, French, Italian and German were familiar to him: he wrote Greek and French, and was a poet and a proficient in music. He formed the bold plan of freeing Greece from the Ottoman Porte by means of a great secret association, and succeeded even in bringing powerful Turks into his conspiracy; among others, the celebrated Passwan Oglou. He then went to Vienna, where many rich merchants and some learned men of his nation resided. From this place he held a secret correspondence with the most important confederates in Greece, and in other parts of Europe. At the same time, he published a Greek journal, translated the Travels of the Younger Anacharsis, and wrote a treatise upon tactics. His patriotic songs, in his native language, were calculated to inflame the imagination of the Greek youth, and to embitter them against the Mussulmans. He likewise prepared a map of all Greece, with the ancient and modern names of places, in twelve sheets, which was printed at the expense of his countrymen in Vienna. He perished at the age of forty-five, having been arrested in Trieste. The signatures of all the confederates were contained in a document which he always carried about with him. This he destroyed in the night, and swallowed the names of his countrymen. With several other prisoners he was conducted to Vienna. Rhigas and three others of those arrested were sent back in chains to Belgrade, in May, 1798, and, according to some accounts, beheaded, and cast into the Danube. According to other accounts, Rhigas was sawed asunder between two boards.

RHINE (in German, Rhein; in Dutch, Rhyn, or Ryn); in magnitude the fourth river of Europe, and one of the noblest rivers in the world. There are rivers whose course is longer, and whose volume of water is greater, but none which unites almost every thing that can renderan earthly object magnificent and charming, in the same degree as the Rhine. As it flows down from the distant ridges of the Alps, through fertile regions into the open sea, so it comes down from remote antiquity, associated in every age with .nomentous events in the history of the neighboring nations. A river which presents so many

historical recollections of Roman conquests and defeats, of the chivalric exploits of the feudal period, of the wars and negotiations of modern times, of the coronations of emperors whose bones repose by its side; on whose borders stand the two grandest monuments of the noble architecture of the middle ages; whose banks present every variety of wild and picturesque rocks, thick forests, fertile plains, vineyards sometimes gently sloping, sometimes perched among lofty crags, where industry has won a domain among the fortresses of nature; whose banks are ornamented with populous cities, flourishing towns and villages, castles and ruins, with which a thousand legends are connected, beautiful and romantic roads, and salutary mineral springs; a river whose waters offer choice fish, as its banks offer the choicest wines; which, in its course of 900 miles, affords 630 miles of uninterrupted navigation, from Bâsle to the sea, and enables the inhabitants of its banks to exchange the rich and various products of its shores; whose cities, famous for commerce, science, and works of strength, which furnish protection to Germany, are also famous as the seats of Roman colonies, and of ecclesiastical councils, and are associated with many of the most important events recorded in history;-such a river it is not surprising that the Germans regard with a kind of reverence, and frequently call in poetry father Rhine, or king Rhine. (See Byron's verses on the Rhine, in Childe Harold, canto iii, stanzas 55-61.) Since the French revolution, the Rhine has been frequently called in France the natural boundary between France and Germany: with equal reason the Elbe might be called so, and perhaps would have been called so, had the French empire continued, as it had extended already to that river at one point.* The Rhine rises in the Swiss canton of the GriBons (q. v.), from three chief sources. The first comes from the mountain called Crispalt, north-east of the St. Gothard, and unites at Dissentis with the second, which comes from the Lucmanian mountain: both unite with the third, which comes from a glacier in the mountain of Adula, about twenty leagues distant from Reiche nau, the point of confluence of all three. Rivers are, generally speaking, poor means of political separation, because they are, in fact, means of connexion rather than of separation. Mountains and languages furnish far more effectual lines of demarkation. The only reason why rivers have often been taken as frontiers is, because they are lines drawn by nature, which can se easily designated in treaties.

The river here takes the name of Rhine, and is 230 feet wide. It passes through the Bodensee (lake of Constance, q. v.). From Reichenau to Bâsle it is navigable at intervals, sometimes only by rafts. Before it falls into the lake of Constance, it forms the cataract of Schaffhausen, in the canton of Zürich, where the river is closely compressed by rocks, and falls with great fury eighty feet. After having traversed or touched several cantons of Switzerland, also Austria, Baden, France, Bavaria, Hessia, Nassau, Prussia and the Netherlands, it divides into several branches. Hardly has it entered Holland (at Emmerich), when it sends off to the left a considerable branch, the Waal, which joins the Meuse at Woudrichem. Somewhat lower down, a little above Arnheim, on the right, a branch is formed which occupies the bed of a canal constructed by Drusus; this is the New-Yssel, which, after having joined the OldYssel, at Doesburg, takes the name of Yssel, or Over-Yssel, and empties into the Zuyder-Zee. Arrived at Wyk-byDuurstede, twenty-seven miles east of Arnheim, the Rhine divides into two branches, one of which, the chief continuation of the river, is called Lech, and joins the Meuse: it forms on its right the NederYssel, which also joins the Meuse; the other branch, formerly the most considerable, but now small, is now called the Crooked Rhine (Kromme-Rhyn), and takes its course to Utrecht, where again it splits: the north-west branch is called Vecht, and empties into the Zuyder-Zee; the other, western branch, called Old Rhine (Oude-Rhyn) empties into the North sea, two leagues from Leyden. It formerly disappeared in the downs of Katwyk, formed in 860; but it has been conducted by a canal from Leyden to the

sea.

The most important rivers which flow into it are, the Aar, Kinzig, Murg, Neckar, Maine, Nahe, Lahn, Moselle, Erft, Ruhr, Lippe: the most important places on the banks are Constance, Schaffhausen, Bâsle, Spire, Manheim, Worms, Mentz, Bingen, Coblentz, Bonn, Cologne, Dussel dorf, Wesel, Emmerich, Arnheim, Utrecht, Leyden. The whole basin of the Rhine is about 180 leagues long, and 100 leagues wide, where it is the widest, and comThe prises about 10,000 square leagues. canal of the Rhone and Rhine unites these two rivers by means of the Saône the great canal of the North uniting the Rhine with the Meuse and the Nethe, and thus with the Scheldt. In the article Parube, we have spoken of the projected

canal which was to unite the Danube and the Rhine, the Black sea and the Northern ocean. The Rhine furnishes excellent salmon (called Lachse when they ascend the river in spring, coming from the sea, and Salmen when they descend in autumn to the sea), sturgeons, lampreys, pikes, and excellent carps. From Strasburg to Spire, the Rhine is about 1100 feet wide; at some parts of the Rheingau, it is 1800; at Cologne, 1300. At Schenkenschanz, where it enters the Netherlands, it is 2150 feet wide. Its depth from Bâsle to Strasburg is between ten and twelve feet; at Mentz, twenty-four; at Dusseldorf, fifty. When the snow melts in Switzerland, the Rhine rises from twelve to thirteen feet above its common level. The mean descent of the river is about seven feet a mile; its current runs about 288 feet in a minute, or about three and a third miles per hour. Vessels of from 300 to 450 tons go up the river to Cologne, those of 125 to 200 to Mentz, those of 100 to 125 to Strasburg. Steam-boats and "water diligences" render communication easy. The congress of Vienna, in 1815, declared the navigation of all the German rivers free; but this ordinance has not been carried into effect as regards the Danube (q. v.), and it was not till after fifteen years' negotiation between the various powers, and after 563 protocols had been drawn up on the subject that the navigation of the Rhine was made free, in the year 1831. Three books contain every thing necessary for a journey along the Rhine: one, by Lange, comprehends the Journey from Mentz to Dusseldorf, the most romantic part south of Basle; another, by Aloys Schreiber, comprehends the whole course of the Rhine, with excursions into neighboring parts; the third is by Ch. A. Fischer-Newest Guide from Mayence to Cologne (Frankfort, 1827), There exist excellent representations of the scenery of the Rhine, semi-perspective and semi-topographic, very ingenious productions, which afford the raveller the highest gratification.See, also, the Panorama of the Rhine, from Mayence to Cologne, by Delkeskamp (Dresd. and Frankf., 1825, in 80 engravings), also Primavesi's Course of the Rhine from its Sources to its Mouth, drawn from Nature (1818), and HistoricoStatistical Panorama of the Rhine, from Bingen to Coblentz, by Dahl (Heidelberg, 1820). Aloys Schreiber's book contains a catalogue of all the works on the Rhine or relating to it.

RHINE; one of the eight circles of Ba

varia, commonly called Rheinbaiern, separated from the rest of the kingdom, on the left bank of the Rhine. It is chiefly composed of the former French department Mont-Tonnere. The Mont-Tonnere, 2100 feet high, is the summit of the Vosges (q. v.), which traverse the circle. Inhabitants, 517,081; square miles, about 3000.

RHINE, DEPARTMENTS OF THE UPPER AND LOWER. (See Department.) RHINE, CONFEDERATION OF. (See Confederation of the Rhine.)

RHINE,LOWER (in German, Niederrhein), a Prussian province, with the title of a grand-duchy, formed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815, containing 1,127,297 inhabitants and 6100 square miles, embraces both banks of the Rhine, and is bounded by the Prussian provinces of JuliersCleves-Berg and Westphalia, by Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, France, the Netherlands, and several smaller territories. The Hundsrück (q. v.) traverses the province of the Lower Rhine between the rivers Nahe and Moselle, and joins the Vosges. The Eiffel and the High Veen are ridges of hills coming from the Ardennes. The province furnishes game, fish, grain, fruits, flax, hemp, wine, wood, silver, iron, copper, lead, calamine, marble, slate, sand and mill stones, basalt, tufa, porphyry alum, sulphur, coals, and mineral waters. In some parts much manufacturing industry exists. Much cloth is made in and near Aix-la-Chapelle. The other manufactures are linen, silks, leather, iron and steel wares. The inhabitants are mostly Catholics; in the southern part French is spoken in some places. The province is divided into three governments-Aix-laChapelle, Treves, and Coblentz. Aix-laChapelle (q. v.) is the chief place. The province comprehends the chief part of the ancient archbishopric of Treves, the abbeys of Prüm, Cornely-Munster, Malmedy, part of the old archbishopric of Cologne, of the duchy of Luxemburg and Juliers, &c.

RHINOCEROS. This is a large animal, belonging to the order of pachydermata, having each foot divided into three toes, and furnished with one or more horns on the snout. There are several species, the best known of which are the Indian, or one-horned, and the African, or two-horn ed.-One-horned rhinoceros. This species is a native of India, particularly of that part beyond the Ganges. It is a clumsy and deformed looking animal: a single black horn, placed near the end of the nose, makes its specific character. The upper