able to overcome his propensity to communicate knowledge to others, he once more went to the city of New York, and engaged in the business of instruction, both in his own apartments, and in the grammar school connected with Columbia College. About three years before his death, he was induced, by the persuasion of his family, to quit this field of his labours, and once more to retire to New Brunswick. His death took place on the 10th of August 1843. and elegance. He also contributed to this | ship in that year, he retired at first to New periodical a "Disquisition concerning the Brunswick; but, after a short period, unmotion of a ship which is steered on a given point of the compass," and "A View of the Diophantine Algebra;" both of them ingenious papers. In 1805, Mr. Adrain took charge of the academy at Reading, in Pennsylvania. During his residence in this place, he edited a periodical work, entitled the Analyst, intended as a successor to the Mathematical Correspondent, which had for some time ceased to be published. Among his various contributions to it, the most important is an article entitled "Research concerning the proba- The period of Dr. Adrain's first residence bilities of the errors which happen in mak-in New York was one with him of much ing observations, &c.," in which a rule is intellectual activity. In the early portion given, of simpler application than any be- of it, a paper of his appeared in the transfore in use, for correcting the dead reck- actions of the American Philosophical Sooning at sea, and another for correcting a ciety, on the figure and magnitude of the survey to a very great degree of accuracy. earth, which added considerably to his reMr. Adrain was, at length, extensively putation, and is, without doubt, the most known as a skilful mathematician; and, in important of his productions. He also the year 1810, he was appointed to fill the made contributions on mathematical subprofessorship of Mathematics and Natural jects to several periodicals, and edited, Philosophy in Queen's (now Rutgers') during the latter portion of the period in College, at New Brunswick, in New Jer- question, the "Mathematical Diary," a sey. Honours of different kinds were now work of the same general character as the awarded him. Shortly after removing to Analyst. Dr. Adrain left behind him a New Brunswick, the degree of LL.D. was number of manuscripts, which, like his conferred upon him; in 1812, he was published works, have been pronounced, elected a member of the American Philo- by a competent judge, to exhibit a very sophical Society; and, in the following high order of ability. Great ingenuity, year, a member of the American Academy as well as a remarkable degree of simpliof Arts and Sciences. About this period city and clearness, characterized every he published an edition of Hutton's Course thing that he wrote. It may be added of Mathematics, which was improved in that his acquirements were by no means its arrangement, and enriched with various confined to the department of science in notes and additions. In the summer of the which he excelled. He was a good clasyear 1813, Dr. Adrain was chosen Pro- sical scholar, was extensively acquainted fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philo- with general literature, and possessed no sophy in Columbia College, in the city of little skill and power in conversation. New York, in place of Dr. John Kemp, who had died a few months previously; and when, a few years afterwards, it was deemed expedient, by the trustees of the college, to divide the professorship which he held, into the two distinct professorships of Mathematics, and of Natural Philosophy, he continued in charge of the former of these. After having resided in New York 13 years, he was induced by the state of his wife's health, which required the air of the country, to resign his professorship, and to accept of an appointment to the same post which he had once before occupied at New Brunswick, where, however, he remained only until 1827, when he accepted the office of Professor of Mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania. In this situation he continued till the year 1834. On his resignation of his professor ADRIA was once a considerable town, situated between the mouths of the Po and the Adige, and of so much importance as to have given to the Adriatic Sea its name. After the fall of the Western Empire of Rome, the dykes, which protected the surrounding country from inundation, were neglected, and it became marshy and uninhabitable. The mud, also, and other deposites, brought by the waters of the Po and the Adige, caused a gradual extension of the land into the Adriatic; and Adria ceased to be a seaport. It is now about 15 miles distant from the coast. By the draining of the neighbouring lands, the health of the place has been latterly much improved, and it has begun to revive. Its population is estimated to amount to 9000. ADRIANOPLE.* The Russian army, com manded by General Diebitsch, after forcing | feet; that is, about an inch for every thouthe passage of the Balkan, took possession sand feet. He also found that at elevations of this city without opposition, on the 20th of August 1829, though fortified, and provided with a numerous garrison; and here, on the following 14th of September, the treaty of peace was concluded, which established henceforth the influence of Russia over Turkey. The statements of travellers make the population of Adrianople to vary from 90,000 to 150,000 persons. According to Mr. Keppel, whose authority seems to be entitled to as much reliance as that of any other traveller, it contains 23,000 houses and 90,000 inhabitants; 45,000 of whom are Turks, 30,000 Greeks and Bulgarians, and the remainder Armenians and Jews. between 5000 and 7000 feet above the earth, the atmosphere was completely saturated with_moisture.—In general, however, most of the ascents which have been undertaken have served no other purpose than to gratify an idle curiosity; and from the total failure of every scheme that has been proposed for directing the course of balloons through the air, there is little reason to anticipate any advantages from them to society. Nevertheless, the com parative cheapness and facility with which they can be filled by coal gas, now so generally used for purposes of illumination, have been the cause of directing the public attention again to the subject; and the recent feat of Mr. Green and two companions, who, with a stupendous balloon, and carrying with them a ton of ballast, ascended from London in November 1836, crossed the channel, and, after a journey through the air of 18 hours, safely descended in the territory of Nassau in Germany, together with one or two equally or still more extensive journeys performed, more recently still, in the United States, have contributed to revive the hope of rendering balloons available for useful purposes. ETNA is more frequently written in English Etna. Just as the opinion was prevailing that the fires of Etna were becoming exhausted, an opinion founded on a comparison of the eruptions during the last 150 years with those which preceded them,—the eruption of November 1832 occurred somewhat to weaken our faith in its accuracy. This eruption was of a most terrific description, and threatened at one time the entire destruction of Bronte, a town with 13,000 inhabitants. A stream of burning lava, which had been steadily advancing nearer and nearer dur AERONAUTICS. Among the most interesting ascents which have been made with a balloon, are those of Biot and Gay Lussac in August 1804, and of the latter alone in September of the same year. The object which these two philosophers had in view was to make meteorological observations in the upper strata of the atmosphere. In the first voyage, they found the oscillations of the magnetic needle to be performed at an elevation of between 9,500 and 13,000 English feet in the same time as at the surface of the earth. At 12,800 feet, the thermometer, which stood at 6310 of Fahrenheit at the observatory at Paris, had sunk to 51°, being a decrease of only 10 for every thousand feet. The hygroscope indicated increased dryness in proportion to the elevation. In the second of the two ascents referred to, the variation of the compass, at the height of 12,680 feet, was found to remain unaltered. At 14,480 feet, a key, held in the magnetic direction, attracted with one end, and repelled with the other, the north pole of the magnetic needle, and the same was the case at 20,150 feet. At 18,000 feet, the thermo-ing several days, and which is represented meter fell to the freezing point, and at 22,912 feet, to 14.9° of Fahr. Two flasks, which had been previously emptied of air, were opened and filled, at an elevation exceeding 21,400 feet; and the air brought down from this region was found, on being analyzed, to contain exactly the same proportions of the constituent elements as at the surface. The utmost elevation reached by the aeronaut on this occasion was 23,040 feet, or 44 miles above the level of the sea, which is considerably higher than the loftiest peak of the Andes.-In an excursion mnade in England, on August 1st 1843, Mr. Green found the mercury in the barometer to fall precisely 4 inches, in his ascent from an elevation of 2,591 feet to one of 6,758 to have been 18 miles long (including all its windings), a mile broad, and 30 feet high, appeared, for a short time, to balance between the route to the town, and another which equally presented itself, but at length decided in favour of the latter. It poured itself down a large gulf previously opened; and Bronte escaped, at least for a time. AFFIDAVIT signifies an oath in writing, sworn before some person having authority to administer it. AFFILIATE is a modern term, employed with reference to certain associations of men, which have been formed for the purpose of thereby more effectually accomplishing some important political object. These affiliated societies are of a local | dahar for the lower Indus. (For the imcharacter, but depend on a central society, portant events which have latterly occurred with which they correspond, and from in Afghanistan, see India, Sup.) which they receive directions. The most remarkable of such societies have been the jacobin clubs of France, in the earlier part of the revolution; which were constituted after the model of that of Paris, and were distributed throughout the departments. Such, too, are, in our day, the repeal associations of Ireland. AFGHANISTAN. The people, who are called Afghans by the English and other Europeans, style themselves Pooshtaneh, or Pooshtoos, and are by the Hindoos denominated Patans. Very few words in the Pooshtoo language are of Sanscrit origin, and it differs, indeed, essentially from the neighbouring dialects. It is written in the Niskee character of the Persian alphabet; but the Pooshtoo literature is very scanty.-The Afghans are Soonees, or orthodox Mussulmans, in contradistinction to the Persians, who are Sheahs, or followers of Ali. They are, however, far from being intolerant to others. Hindoos remain unmolested on paying a slight tax. Christians sustain neither persecution nor reproach; they are called people of the book, as deriving their tenets from a written source, which they themselves respect, instead of being pagans, as the Hindoos. Sheahs are detested more than any other sect; yet the country is full of Persian Sheahs, many of whom held important offices under the crown, and now do so under the several chiefs. Sooffeeism (or freethinking), though denounced by the moollahs or priests, is common, and gains ground among the higher orders.-The Afghans are divided into a great number of tribes, who acknowledge the same general chief residing at Cabul, but act for the most part independently of each other. Of these tribes, the three principal are the Dooranees, Ghiljees, and Berdooranees; the two former belonging to the western, and the latter to the eastern, part of Afghanistan. The Hindoos and Tadshicks dwell almost entirely in the towns.-Trade is carried on with the neighbouring countries by means of caravans, and is restricted in amount by the badness and insecurity of the roads. The principal branch of it is that with India. Horses and fruits constitute the larger part of the exports: the imports consist chiefly of English and Indian manufactured goods, spices, sugar, &c. The points for the assembling and departure of the caravans, are Peshawur for Hindostan generally, Cabul for Bukharią, and Can AFRICA. Since the publication of the article on Africa, in our first volume, the exploring of the various parts of that continent has proceeded with unabated activity. The course of the Niger having been already traced, by Lander, to its mouth in the bay of Benin, Laird ascended this stream in 1832, and again, accompanied by Oldfield in a steam vessel, in the following year. The latter, in a smaller vessel, succeeded in reaching Rabba; and then, going up the Tchadda, he constructed a map of it as far as the town of Addacudda (Laird and Oldfield's Narrative of an Expedition in 1832-34). In the last few years, a mercantile house in Liverpool has dispatched as many as three steam vessels annually, for trading purposes, to a distance of 50 miles on the Niger higher up than Rabba. Concerning Ashantee, the latest information which has reached us is from a missionary of the name of Freeman, published in Burton's work on the Slave Trade, &c. Mr. F. visited Ashantee in 1839. From Rankin, who resided there during the year 1833, we have a detailed account of the British colony of Sierra Leone. Commodore Owen, in a narrative of his voyage to the western coast of Africa, published in 1833, has given us a description of Congo, Angola, and Benguela: and one of the latest travellers in Angola is Bartholomon (1835). In Southern Africa, French missionaries, between the years 1830 and 1833, penetrated into the Bushwana country, and established in it a flourishing missionary station; while, every year, the English traders crossed the Orange river, and advanced far into the country beyond it. These successful expeditions led to the formation, at Cape Town, of a society for the systematic exploring of the interior of the continent. Dr. Andrew Smith, accompanied by several individuals selected for the purpose on account of their fitness, was accordingly commissioned to carry into execution the object of the society. The travellers were kindly treated by all with whom they held any communication on their journey, and found nothing to hinder them in their progress, excepting the difficulty of procuring the means of subsistence. This difficulty, however, be came so great, when they had reached the latitude of 23° 28′ S., as to compel them to turn back. With all their efforts, they had not advanced as far to the N. as a trader named Hume had done, who had travelled on his own private business, un- | aided by any extrinsic patronage; and the only information of any moment they acquired was that of the existence of a lake at a considerable distance to the north. The next person who travelled in the same general direction, but by a different route, was Captain Alexander. In 1836, he visited the hitherto unknown territories of several nations or tribes, and has given a description of them in his account of "An Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of Africa." As sources of farther information concerning Southern Africa, may be mentioned Captain Harris's narrative of his hunting expedition in the country of the Matabilis, in the same year, 1836, and, more especially, the work of the French missionary among the Bushwanas, Eugene Casalis, published in 1841, and entitled "Études sur la langue Séchuana,' a work which, besides its professed subject, gives an interesting account of the people among whom he laboured. But no part of Africa has attracted more of the attention of Europeans, in the last 12 or 15 years, than Abyssinia. Some of the most important of the works which have latterly described that country and its inhabitants, are those of MM. Combes and Tamisier, M. Rochet d'Héricourt, Messrs. Isemberg and Krapf, Captain Harris, and Mr. Johnston. In respect to Sennaar and Cordofan much less has been written; and perhaps the most interesting sources to be consulted are the reports, made to Mehemed Ali, by the chiefs of the expedition fitted out by him to explore the country of Soudan, in 1838, and originally written in the Turkish language, together with a narrative of the expedition, written in the same language, by one of the officers of the Viceroy, the Sheik Mohammed Eltumisi. What is most important in the former of these may be found in Burton's treatise on the Slave Trade; and of the latter a French translation, by Perron, was published at Cairo. The work also of the Italian traveller, Ferlini, who was engaged, in 1833, in making excavations in these regions, may be consulted with advantage (Cenno sugli Scavi operati nella Nubia). AFZELIUS; a Swedish family, remarkable for the number of distinguished men of letters whom it has produced. Adam Afzelius, who was born in October 1750, and died in January 1837, was the last surviving pupil of Linnæus. In 1777, he was appointed teacher (docent) of Oriental Literature, and in 1785, demonstrator of Botany in the University of Upsal. He In went to Great Britain in 1789, and, while there, was offered the appointment of naturalist to the embassy of Lord Macartney to China, which he declined. 1792, he consented to go as botanist to the British colony of Sierra Leone, in Africa. He returned thence to England in 1794, and was, two years afterwards, appointed secretary of the Swedish legation in London. In 1799, he returned to his own country, after an absence of ten years, and, in 1812, was appointed to the chair of Dietetics at Upsal, a situation which he continued to occupy till his death. As an author, he is known by his botanical writings, consisting chiefly of papers communicated by him to the Royal Academy of Stockholm, and to the Linnæan Society of London. Besides these, he published a notice of the life of Linnæus, with copious extracts from the autobiography of the latter. Several species of plants, and two of insects, have received names in honour of Afzelius. His large collection of plants was purchased for the university, of which he had, for so many years, been a member.-John and Pehr Afzelius, brothers of Adam, were, like him, professors at Upsal, the former of Chemistry, and the latter of Medicine; both distinguished as instructors, though neither of them has written anything for the public. Pehr, who is (1843) still living in retirement, was long known as one of the most eminent physicians of Sweden.—Anders Eric Afzelius is a near relative of the brothers who have been mentioned, and was, from 1818 to 1821, a teacher in the Faculty of Law in the University of Abo. When this city was annexed to Russia, he became obnoxious to the government on account of his political opinions, and, in 1831, was ordered to quit the country. Not, however, obeying the mandate with sufficient promptitude, he was arrested and exiled to Viatka. Since 1835, he has been permitted to reside at Willmanstrand, a town of Finland. - Arvid Augustus Afzelius was born in 1785, and has, since the year 1821, been settled as a clergyman, in the town of Enköping. He is honourably known for his researches into the earlier literature of the north of Europe. His attention has been, in an especial manner, directed to the ancient ballads, or popular songs, of his own country, and he has attempted several imitations of them. In conjunction with Geijer, he published an edition, in three volumes, of these ballads, accompanied by the older melodies. Dramatic composition he has attempted, but without much success. Since 1840, he AFZELIUS-AGENT. AGARDH (Charles Adolphus), bishop of Carlstad, and professor of botany in the University of Lund, in Sweden, was born on the 23d of January 1785, at Bästad, in the province of Schonen, where his father, who was a merchant, resided. He became a student in the institution just mentioned when 14 years of age, and in 1807 was appointed one of the instructors in mathematics. His attention was, however, very soon diverted from this department of science to the natural history of plants, especially of the cryptogamic plants; and among these, again, he selected, as a particular object of his inquiry, the class of the alga. When, in 1812, he was appointed professor of botany in the university, an office which he still continues to hold, an opportunity was afforded him of gratifying, in a greater degree than heretofore, his favourite tastes. This opportunity he profited by, to be distinguished beyond all other naturalists, in his peculiar province of investigation. But besides, many papers on the subject of the algæ, which were communicated by him to different learned societies, he is the author of an elementary work on botany; and he found leisure, too, among his various occupations, to prepare and publish a work on the elements of political economy, together with a memoir of Linnæus. In 1816, Agardh entered into the ministry, and became a bishop in 1834; from which period he has been principally occupied with theology and oriental literature. He has several times been a representative of the clerical order in the diet of Sweden, and has highly distinguished himself in that body, both for the extent of his general knowledge, and his ability as a debater. It may be added that, among his other honours, he has that of being one of the 18 members of the Swedish Academy. 25 has been occupied with a history of Swe- | Spix, who had accompanied him to Brazil, den; three volumes of which had appeared entrusted, in 1826, to Agassiz the descripin 1842. tion of 116 species of fishes, from among those which were the fruits of his journey, many of them belonging to genera altogether new. Agassiz now first presented to the public his views relating to the classification of fishes,-views which he has since continued steadily to entertain. The work was published at Neufchâtel in a folio volume, with numerous lithographic plates, under the title of "Pisces etc., quos collegit et pingendos curavit Spix, descripsit Agassiz." His attention having been thus directed to the subject of ichthyology, he was led to prosecute it still further. In his "Histoire naturelle des poissons d'eau douce de l'Europe centrale," the first part published in 1839, and the second in 1842, he has described the fishes of the lakes and rivers of the middle portions of Europe with great minuteness of detail, furnishing us with much that is new concerning their anatomical structure, their distribution, and habits. Another of his works, which has appeared in numbers from 1833 to 1844, is the "Recherches sur les poissons fossiles." It is founded upon a comprehensive examination of the fossil remains contained in public and private collections, especially at Paris, where he spent a considerable time with this object in view; and it supplied a desideratum in the department of fossil zoology. From one class of remains he has been, very naturally, attracted to the consideration of other classes. The "Description des échinodermes fossiles de la Suisse," the "Monographie d'echinodermes vivants et fossiles," the "Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles," and the "Mémoire sur les moules de mollusques vivants et fossiles," are the fruits of his indefatigable labours. But none of his works have made so great an impression on men of science as his "Études sur les glaciers;" on account of the novelty of the geological speculations contained in it, developed, as they are, in a very ingenious and plausible manner. AGASSIZ (Louis), one of the most eminent naturalists of the present day, was born in 1807, at Orbe, in the Pays de Vaud, in Switzerland, where his father AGENT, in law, is a person appointed to was a clergyman. He received his edu- transact the business of another. It is a cation successively at the gymnasium of principle of law that whenever a man has Biel, the academy of Lausanne, and the a power, as owner, to do a thing, he may universities of Zürich, Heidelberg, and do it by the instrumentality, or agency, Munich; in which last institution he took of another. An agent may, in general, his doctor's degree. From his youth up-be appointed by bare words, or his appointwards he exhibited a passion for the study of nature. At Heidelberg and Munich, his attention was chiefly occupied with the subject of comparative anatomy; and at the latter place, Martius, on the death of VOL, XIV.-4 ment may be inferred from circumstances. For some purposes, as a security against fraud, it must be in writing; and the agent of a corporation must, for the most part, be appointed by deed. It is only against |