-- LIVINGSTON. he was one of the leaders of the party opposed to the administration of the general government. His opposition, however, was devoid of asperity, and was far from being indiscriminate in its character. Nor was his attention by any means confined to the political questions by which the community was at that time agitated. To him were owing the first, though ineffectual, attempts to mitigate the severity of our criminal laws, and to adapt the punishments inflicted, more justly than had before been done, to the nature of the offence which was committed. He urged the passage, also, of several laws to protect or relieve American seamen, left by accident or misfortune on foreign shores. And he gave his earnest support to the measures for the gradual increase of the navy.· Shortly after retiring from Congress, he was appointed by the president, Mr. Jefferson, to the office of attorney of the United States for the state of New York; and about the | same time he was elected mayor of the city of New York, an office which, as then constituted, required the exercise of important judicial functions, in addition to the duties ordinarily performed by the first municipal magistrate of a large city. In 1803, during his mayoralty, the city experienced an attack of the yellow fever; when "his personal exertions and benevolence were fearlessly displayed, at the risk of, and almost with the loss of his own life." In the mean time, his private affairs having been completely neglected, in consequence of his assiduous attention to those of the public, they became greatly deranged; and through the misconduct of persons who had been entrusted by him with the collection of debts due to the United States, he was subjected to heavy liabilities. He at once resigned his offices, and by a removal to Louisiana, which had just been purchased from France, sought for a rich field, where, by his professional labours, he could hope to obtain the means of relieving himself from his pecuniary embarrassments. Nor was he disappointed; for he was ultimately enabled to discharge the obligations which he had incurred, both principal and interest. Shortly after his arrival in Louisiana, the Legislature of that territory entrusted to him, in conjunction with the late Mr. James Brown, the preparation of a system of judicial procedure. Discarding the fictions and technicalities of the English law, and avoiding also the prolixity of the Spanish, and not unfrequently of the French code, they produced a simple and intelligible system, and one well calculated to prevent 399 unnecessary delay and expense. It was adopted by the Legislature, as well through the ability displayed by its framers in its support, as on account of its own intrinsic merits; in despite of the resistance which it met with from the members of the bar generally who had removed to Louisiana from the other States of the American Union. But this was merely an introductory step to other still more important labours of a similar character. In 1820, he was appointed, jointly with Messrs. Derbigny and Moreau, to revise the system of civil or municipal law, a compound of French, Spanish, and American or English jurisprudence, hitherto in use in the state of Louisiana; and in 1821, he was charged solely with the preparation of a new system of penal law. The new civil code was presented to the Legislature in 1823, and, with the exception of the commercial part, to which objections were made, was promptly adopted by it. Mr. Livingston made, in 1822, a preliminary report on the principles and plan on which he proposed to frame the new criminal code, with specimens of the mode of its execution. This report was soon afterwards reprinted in London; and a French translation of it was published at Paris, in 1825. The system of penal law, in the form in which we now have it, was submitted to the Legislature in the year 1826. It is not, properly speaking, a single code, but consists of "a code of crimes and punishments, a code of criminal procedure, a code of evidence, a code of reform and prison discipline, and a book of definitions, together with introductory reports to each of the codes, pointing out the changes made in existing laws, the new enactments pro posed, and the principles and reasons on which they were founded." These were all published together at Philadelphia, in one large 8vo volume, in the year 1833. "The system," Mr. Gilpin tells us in his biographical notice of Mr. Livingston, read before the American Philosophical Society, and inserted in the 3d volume of the American Law Magazine, "has not, it is believed, been yet finally acted upon, in its extended form, by the Legislature of Louisiana; but it does not, on this account, claim less justly the admiration of the philanthropist and jurist. It is a work worthy of the deep consideration of all communities. The beauty of its arrangement, the wisdom of its provisions, and the simplicity of its forms, have never been surpassed, probably never equalled, in any similar work; and it is not without entire justice, that this admirable prod› c 400 lic LIVINGSTON-LOMOND. and upon his merits as such his reputation will chiefly rest, and long endure. These merits were acknowledged in letters to him, and otherwise, by some of the most distinguished of his contemporaries abroad, as well as at home; and they procured for him, among other honours of a similar nature, that of being chosen to be one of the foreign associates of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in the Moral and Political department. LOBAU* (Count). The services rendered by him, as commander of the national guards of Paris, in maintaining the order and tranquillity of that metropolis, were rewarded by his promotion, in July 1831, to the dignity of a marshal of France. He died in the month of November 1838. tion has contributed, perhaps more than | Livingston is most extensively known; any other of his labours, to secure to Mr. Livingston that eminent place which he holds among those who are regarded, not merely as distinguished jurists, but as pubbenefactors."-For a period of 20 years, Mr. Livingston had taken no part in public affairs, excepting in so far as they were connected with the theory or practice of his profession, and excepting, too, the part which he acted in the defence of New Orleans, in the capacity of an aidede-camp of General Jackson. At length, in 1823, on his signifying his intention to retire from the bar, he was elected a representative in Congress from the state of Louisiana; in 1829, he was transferred to a seat in the Senate of the United States; and in 1831, he was appointed by General Jackson to the office of secretary of state, then vacant by the resignation of Mr. Van Buren. During his service in Congress, from 1823 to 1831, Mr. Livingston did not speak often, and only on important questions of general policy. He was always listened to with marked attention and respect, and distinguished himself especially in the celebrated debate in the Senate on Mr. Foote's resolution, relative to the public lands. As the head of the department of State, his correspondence, and other documents of which he was the author, will compare without disparagement with those that have proceeded from the other eminent men who, since the organization of the government, have occupied the same position, and exhibit throughout a most enlightened and liberal spirit in reference to the foreign relations of the country. In the summer of 1833, the president selected Mr. Livingston to fill the post of American minister to France; it being at the time one of unusual importance, on account of the difficulties which had sprung out of the refusal by the French Chambers to make provision for the payment of the indemnity due to the United States, for injuries committed against their commerce during the last European war. Mr. Livingston conducted his mission, under trying circumstances, in a manner redounding very much to his own credit, as well as to the honour of the country which he represented. On his return to America in the spring of 1835, he retired to his seat at Rhinebeck, on the Hudson river, in the midst of his numerous family connexions. He died there on the 23d of May 1836.Eminent as he was as a statesman, and as a member of the American bar, it is, however, as a theoretical jurist that Mr. LOCKHART (John Gibson) was born in January 1794, at Cambusnethar in the Scottish county of Lanark. When 15 years old, he became a student in the University of Oxford, and took his degree of A.M. there in 1813. He then studied the law, and was admitted, in 1816, as an advocate at the Edinburgh bar. His attention was, however, soon withdrawn from the practice of his profession to the more agreeable pursuits of literature; and he became one of the most active contributors to "Blackwood's Magazine." In 1819, he published his "Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk," which were very extensively read, in America as well as in Europe. This was followed (1820-1825) by his novels or tales of "Adam Blair," "Mathew Wald," "Valerius," and "Reginald Dalton," and by a volume of Spanish romances in an English version. His reputation was now fully established; and in 1825, he was selected to be the editor of the "London Quarterly Review," to which he has contributed a number of very able articles. In 1827, Mr. Lockhart published an account of the life of Robert Burns; in 1829, one of Napoleon; and in 1837, that of Sir Walter Scott, whose daughter he had married. He has also translated Frederick von Schlegel's "Lectures on Ancient and Modern Literature." LOMOND (Ben), a mountain of Scotland, situated between lochs Lomond and Katrine, 27 miles N.W. of Glasgow. It is elevated 3195 feet above the level of the sea, and its summit commands a great extent of view, on which account it is more frequently visited than any of the highland mountains. LOMOND (Loch) is a lake of Scotland, between the counties of Dunbarton and Stirling. It is the largest of the British LOMOND-LONDON. akes, being 24 miles in length, from N.N.W. to S.S.E.; and where broadest, along its S. shore, it is from 7 to 8 miles across. It is celebrated for the varied magnificence of its scenery, and is much resorted to by tourists during the summer season. Contemporaneously with the occurrence of the great earthquake at Lisbon in 1755, the waters of the lake were violently agitated; rising rapidly several feet and as rapidly falling, for several hours. LONDON.* The population of London, in 1831, amounted to 1,508,469, and in 1841, it had increased to 1,710,426. A great increase has also taken place in its trade in late years. There were 3166 British ships, of the aggregate burden of 566,041 tons, and 2355 foreign ships, of 355,463 tons burden, which entered the port of London with cargoes from foreign countries in the year 1839. Of these ships, 15 British of the burden of 7272 tons, and 68, mostly or all American, of the burden of 32,508 tons, were from the United States. In the same year, the number and tonnage of coasting vessels that entered the port were, vessels 21,112, tonnage 2,828,701; and the number and tonnage of ships that entered the port, in that period, with cargoes from the colonies and dependencies of Great Britain, were ships 1683, and tonnage 417,139. There belonged to the port of London, in 1840, 2950 ships, of the total burden of 581,000 tons, manned by 32,000 seamen. This, which is by far the greatest amount of shipping that ever belonged to any single port, will appear the more extraordinary when it is considered that the colliers almost all belong to Newcastle, Sunderland, and other ports in the N.-During the last 30 years (to use the language of the article London in M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary) London has made greater advances than could reasonably have been expected in an entire century. Within that period, four bridges have been built, extensive docks have been excavated, gas been introduced into every street and alley; steam, both on the river and on railways, has given it an almost unlimited power of intercourse with every part of the kingdom, and of the world; new and handsome markets have been erected, arcades lined with elegant shops have been formed, and wide lines of communication have been opened through close and densely-crowded neighbourhoods. A new park, larger and handsomer than any of the other three, has been laid out, and surrounded with houses more resembling VOL. XIV. 51 401 palaces than private residences; an improved police has given additional security both to person and property; abundant supplies of water have been furnished to every separate dwelling: the paving and sewerage have been greatly improved, especially in districts inhabited by the poor; and the formation of spacious cemeteries in the suburbs is gradually leading to the disuse of interments within the town. At the same time, the establishment of colleges and proprietary schools has materially increased the facilities for procuring good education; while the institution of a National Gallery and School of Design is contributing to improve the national taste, and to add to the innocent pleasures of the people.- London, unlike most other European capitals, had no university empowered to grant degrees till 1836, when one was established by the royal charter, for "the advancement of religion and morality, and the promotion of useful knowledge," without distinction of rank, sect, or party. This institution differs from all other universities in its having nothing to do with the business of education, being constituted for the sole purpose of ascertaining the proficiency of candidates for academical distinctions. It is in fact a Board of Examiners, empowered to grant degrees in science and literature to such candidates as are found, on examination, to have attained the required proficiency. The senate, or board, consists of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, and 33 other members. The faculties are those of Arts, Law, and Medicine, in each of which are several examiners, amounting in the whole to 22, of whom 10 are members of the senate. The examinations are half-yearly; and the greatest number of candidates for degrees has hitherto been furnished by University and King's Colleges. The former of these, opened in 1828, is governed by a council and senate of professors: the course of education embraces classics, pure and mixed science, history, jurisprudence, and medicine; religion being wholly excluded. There are altogether 32 professors, 12 of whom belong to the faculty of Medicine. The success of the medical school, which has for some years been the largest in London, has led to the erection of a good hospital close to the College. The general classes have not been so well attended as the sanguine friends of the establishment at first expected; but the attendance is like to be increased from the addition to it of an excellent junior school, the instruction in which forms a good preparation for higher studies. King's College is an institution of a similar kind to University College, and is similarly conducted, except that religion is taught, in accordance with the principles of the Church of England. See King's College, (Sup.) sity had 20 professors, and from 600 to 700 students. LOWNDES (William) was born at Charleston, South Carolina, about the year 1781. He was educated at the college in his native town, and then studied the law. He was admitted to the bar, but never practised his profession. Inheriting an ample fortune from his father, he was enabled to gratify his tastes, and to devote himself to philosophical and literary pursuits. The stores of information which he accumulated were not only very extensive, but were, at the same time, exact and practical in their bearing. Notwithstanding his extreme diffidence, amounting almost to what the French term mauvaise honte, he was soon elected a member of the Legislature; and, in the autumn of 1810, he was chosen a representative to Congress. He occupied, for a series of years, a prominent and influential position in that body. Although his voice was feeble, and his external appearance in every respect unprepossessing, he never failed, when he addressed the House, to engage the respectful attention of all who heard him; the members not unfrequently gathering around him in groups to catch the words which fell from his lips. His speech in the session of 1818-19, on Mr. Spencer's resolutions to issue a scire facias against the Bank of the United States for an alleged violation of its charter, and that in the session of 1819-20 on the tariff, were characterized by an extraordinary power of thought and great purity of diction; and his reports on the coinage, and on weights and measures, made in 1818-19, are models of that species of composition. LONDONDERRY or DERRY; a city in the N. of Ireland, and capital of the county of the same name, in the province of Ulster. It is situated on the W. bank of the river Foyle, about 5 miles above where it falls into Lough Foyle, 121 miles N. by W. of Dublin, in lat. 54° 59 N., and long. 7° 19′ W.-Population in 1841, 15,150.-It is well built, and the principal streets are broad and clean, well paved, and well lighted. The cathedral, constructed in 1633, is a large, handsome, Gothic structure, 240 feet long, and has a tower and spire 228 feet high, erected in the present century. The principal public buildings, exclusive of churches and other ecclesiastical edifices, are the Corporation Hall, the Court-House, and the new gaol erected on the panoptic principle.-Londonderry has an extensive and rapidly increasing trade. The value of the exports from it, in 1840, was estimated to amount to £1,350,000 or £1,400,000. Steam-packets ply regularly between it and Glasgow and Liverpool. It is one of the principal points of departure for emigrants to the United States. In Irish history, Londonderry is famous for the memorable siege which its citizens successfully sustained, in 1689, against the forces of James II. A fluted column, one of the chief ornaments of the city, was erected, in 1827, in honour of the Rev. George Walker, the heroic leader of the besieged. LONGHI* died at Milan in January-Mr. Lowndes visited Europe in the 1831. LOUIS BONAPARTE* has resided in great retirement at Florence since 1830. LOUIS PHILIPPE I.* See France, (Sup.) LOUIS* (baron). Notwithstanding his advanced age he was induced to accept of the office of minister of finance, in March 1831, through the earnest solicitations of Casimir Périer, and by so doing contributed, on account of the confidence generally reposed in the moderation and integrity of his character, to tranquillize the public mind. He retired from office, however, in October 1832, when he was created a peer. As such he took a prominent part in the debates relating to financial matters, till his death in 1837. LOUVAIN.* Population in 1836, 24,342. -The railroad from Liege to Brussels passes by way of this city. According to the last information obtained, its univer summer of 1820. The next summer he spent at a seat owned by him in the low country of South Carolina, where he laid the foundation of the disease of which he died. By the advice of Dr. Physick, whom he had consulted, he embarked on a second voyage across the Atlantic, but died before he reached his port of destination, on the 22d of November 1822.— It may be added here concerning Mr. Lowndes, that very few of our public men have been equally fortunate with him in commanding the respect of his political opponents, without in any degree lessening that of the men with whom he generally acted. No one, indeed, was less the slave of party than he was. A remarkable instance, in illustration of this, occurred in December 1811, when an election was about to be held for Speaker of the House of Representatives. Being so LOWNDES-LYELL. LOZENGE,* in Pharmacy, is a medicinal substance made up into a small cake, gradually to be dissolved in the mouth. Sugar, gum, and starch, are the usual inert parts of lozenges, and minute quantities of active substances are added, according to the purposes for which they are intended; such as ipecacuanha or squills, for pectoral lozenges; extract of poppies or opium, for sedative lozenges; cayenne pepper as a stimulant; oil of peppermint, as an antispasmodic, &c. LUBECK* had, in 1840, 26,500 inhabitants.-Upwards of 1600 vessels enter and leave its port annually; they are principally Danish, the rest being Russian, Swedish, Lubeck, Dutch, English, and Prussian. Steam-packets sail at fixed periods from Travemünde, the port of Lubeck, for St. Petersburg, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. The duties on foreign imports are only per cent. ad valorem; the transit duty is from toper cent.: there are no duties on exports. LUCCA. The population of the city of Lucca in 1839 was 24,092.-It has several colleges, a seminary founded by Eliza, princess Bacchiochi, sister of Napoleon, for 100 young ladies, a botanic garden, a ducal library with 21,000 volumes, a university library with 16,000 volumes, a dépôt de mendicité, a monte de pietà, and a savings' bank. - About 12 or 13 miles up the valley of the Serchio, on which the city is built, are the baths of Lucca, picturesquely situated, and frequented by numerous visiters. The temperature of the hottest spring is about 1280 of Fahrenheit. LUCIEN BONAPARTE* was permitted to leave the Papal States in 1830. After passing some time in England, he visited Germany in 1838, and then returned to Italy. He died at Viterbo, near Rome, June 29th 1840.-His son, Charles Bonaparte, (prince of Musignano,) is the author, besides his American Ornithology, of a splendid work on the Italian Fauna. After making several journeys in Europe for scientific purposes, he went to Paris, and remained there for some time, undisturbed by the government. In 1839, Agassiz was preferred to him only by a single vote to fill a vacant seat in the Institute. He took an active part in the proceedings at 403 the annual meetings that have of late years been held by the men of science in Italy, and is a member of several learned societies, among them of the American Philosophical Society, and the Academy of Sciences of Berlin. LUCIFERS.* Matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulphuret of antimony are so denominated. They are inflamed by friction upon a piece of emery paper. LUDEN.* Since the notice of this writer in a previous volume of the present work, he has continued the publication of his "Geschichte der Deutschen Völker;" the 12th volume appeared in 1837. He wrote the account, in 1832, of the travels of duke Bernard of Saxe Weimar in the United States, and, in 1842, published a "Geschichte der Deutschen," in 2 volumes. LUMBER is a term applied, chiefly in America, to timber through all its preparatory stages, from its growing in the woods until it be put into the hands of the artificer for the purpose of being worked up. It occurs principally in the form of scantling, deals, inch-thick boards, clapboards, shingles, staves, and hoops. LUNAR DISTANCE, in Navigation, is the distance of the moon from the sun, or from a fixed star or planet, by means of which the longitude of a ship is found. LUNAR METHOD, in Astronomy and Navigation, is the method of determining the longitude of a place or ship from the observation of lunar distances. LUND.* The university of Lund has continued to have about 600 students. In 1834, there were 108 students of divinity, 130 of law, 50 of medicine, and 160 of literature and science. In the same year, the number of professors is stated to have been 29. A more recent statement makes the instructors of every description to amount to as many as 60. LUSUS NATURE (a sport of nature); a term applied to anything unnatural in the physical world. LUTE OF LUTING, in Chemistry; a composition or paste made of potter's clay, sand, and other materials, for the purpose of closing up the necks of retorts, receivers, &c., in different chemical experi ments. LUTESTRING is a plain, stout, silken fåbric, forming with gros de Naples, of which, indeed, it is merely a fine kind, the staple of silks. LYELL (Charles) was born on the 14th of November 1797, at Kinnordy, near Kirriemuir, in the Scottish county of Forfar. Soon after his birth, his father, who was a |