Brunswick, in New Jersey, in 1835. The prizes in the beginning of May of every phenomena connected with it have been year to successful candidates, after the minutely observed, and are to be found re-example set at the floral games of an corded in Silliman's Journal," vol. 32d. See Storms, (Sup.) 66 earlier period. The botanic garden at Toulouse is the largest and finest in France, after that of Paris. TORONTO. See York. TORRENS (Colonel) was a native of Ire- TRACY (Antoine Louis Claude Destutt, land. He was appointed a first-lieutenant comte de) was born on the 20th of July in the marine service, at the age of 14, in 1754, in the province of the Bourbonnais, 1797, and a captain in 1806. In March in France. He chose the profession of 1811, he commanded the marine garrison arms, and had attained to the rank of a in the Isle of Anholt, where he succeeded colonel at the outbreak of the revolution in repulsing an attack of the Danes, and in 1789. He was one of the deputies of for this exploit was promoted to the brevet the nobility of his native province to the rank of major. He afterwards served in States General, which met in that year, the Peninsula, where he was appointed and distinguished himself by the liberality colonel of a Spanish legion. His last of his political opinions. Subsequently, military employment was in India.-Co- he held the rank of a "maréchal de camp" lonel Torrens was the author of "The in the "army of the north," commanded Economists Refuted; or, an Inquiry into by General Lafayette. But after the overthe nature and extent of the benefits con- throw of the monarchy, on the memorable ferred by Trade and Commerce;" "Celibia 10th of August 1792, he resigned his comchoosing a Husband, a Novel;" "The mission in the army, and, living in retireVictim of Intolerance, a Romance;" "An ment, devoted himself to the pursuits of Essay on Paper-Money and Currency;" philosophy and literature, until the month "Thoughts on the Catholic Question;" of November 1793, when he was arrested "An Essay on the External Corn Trade;" as a suspected person, and confined for the together with other essays or pamphlets period of a year in the prison of the Abon subjects of political economy.-His death took place in London, in 1840. TOULON.* Population in 1841, 34,663. -The arsenal of Toulon is one of the finest in Europe. It occupies a surface of 87 acres, and has dry-docks, and every accommodation for the construction, repair, and outfit of ships. In general, from 3000 to 4000 free workmen are employed within its walls; but in 1840, when an unusual activity prevailed in all the French ports, there were between 5000 and 6000 labourers employed, exclusive of above 3500 criminals. The trade of the port has heretofore been inconsiderable; but it has materially increased since the conquest of Algiers. In 1841, 8 steamers were continually plying between Toulon and Africa, Corsica, Italy, and the East. TOULOUSE.* * The number of inhabitants in this city was, in 1836, 77,372: acaccording to the census of 1841, they amounted to 76,965.- Previously to the Revolution it was the seat of one of the leading French universities; which still exists with the faculties only of law, the sciences, and literature. There are here, also, a school of artillery, a royal college, two public libraries, schools for instruction in medicine and the veterinary art, an institution for the deaf and dumb, several learned or literary societies, the most remarkable among these being the "Academy of the Floral Games," which grants baye.-M. de Tracy was a member of the National Institute when it was established, in the class of the Moral and Political Sciences. This class was abolished in 1803; and five years then elapsed before he re-entered the institute, on the death of Cabanis. He was, for a time, a member of the Committee of Public Instruction, and then became a senator. As such, he voted, in 1814, for the creation of the provisionary government and the forfeiture of the crown by Napoleon. He was nominated a peer of France in June of the same year, and occupied a prominent place in the ranks of the constitutional party during the entire period of the government of the Restoration. His death occurred on the 9th of March 1836. The principal literary productions of M. de Tracy are his "Observations sur le système actuel d'instruction publique" (1801); the Eléments d'idéologie," comprehending “Idéologie proprement dite" (1801), "Grammaire" (1803), and "Logique" (1805); a "Traité de la volonté et de ses effets" (2 vols., 1815); an "Essai sur le génie et les ouvrages de Montesquieu" (1808); and a "Mémoire sur Kant," printed in the Memoirs of the Institute. 66 TRAPANI; a sea-port town of Sicily, on a projecting point of land on the W. coast of the island, 46 miles W. of Palermo. In 1831, the population was 24,735. Its trade is very considerable. There are extensive salinas in its vicinity; and the a statement of what was wanting to comsalt, which is of good quality, is largely plete the former, under the title of the exported. The inhabitants carry on the "Phenomena and Laws of Organic Life" coral fishery on the coast of Africa; and (2 vols. 1831-32). Treviranus was the the cutting and polishing of coral is one author, also, of several other works relaof the principal branches of industry in ting to the same general subject as those the place. Besides salt and coral, the ex- that have been mentioned. He died at ports comprise soda, alabaster, rough or Bremen, on the 16th of February 1837. cut into vases, statues, &c., and a variety of other articles. In 1839, the port was entered by 114 foreign vessels, 73 of which were Austrian. TREBISOND.* Previously to 1830, the trade of this town had dwindled to the export of a few products of the country to Constantinople, the import of iron from Taganrog, and a traffic with Abassah, carried on in small craft, which took away salt, sulphur, lead, and Turkish manufactures, bringing in return the raw productions of the Caucasus, slaves, &c. But the treaty of Adrianople, by opening the Black Sea to European vessels, restored the old channel of communication between Europe and India, Persia, &c., through Trebisond; and the Russian policy of 1831, by putting an end to the immunities enjoyed by the Russian ports S. of the Caucasus, has given to this port an importance it did not before possess. In 1843, there arrived 354 vessels, in burden 72,335 tons, more than a half of which were Turkish. The chief articles of import are manufactured cottons, sugar, coffee, rum, salt, tin, wine, &c. The exports consist of silk, wool, tobacco, carpets, shawls, drugs of various sorts, &c. More than half the articles imported are destined for Persia. TRIESTE.* In 1836, the population of this town was 51,346; and that of the town and its district, comprising about 40 square miles, is stated by Dr. Bowring to have amounted, in 1839, to 75,551, having increased to that amount from 45,323 in 1821.-Trieste is a free port, to the extent that goods destined for its consumption, and that of the adjoining territory, pay no duties. The commerce of Trieste has of late years been rapidly increasing, and between the years 1826 and 1838 it had nearly doubled in amount. This arose chiefly from a more extended intercourse with Turkey, South America (especially Brazil), Great Britain, and the United States. The number of sailing vessels engaged in foreign trade which arrived in 1839 was 1858, in burden 228,253 tons, and of steam vessels 24, in burden 7748 tons; the number of vessels of all descriptions which arrived in the same year was 12,657, in burden 567,841 tons. At an average, the value of the imports into Trieste may amount to $20,000,000. The value of the exports is considerably less. TRUMBULL (Colonel John) was born on the 6th of June 1756, at Lebanon, in Connecticut. His father, Jonathan Trumbull, was governor of that state during the TREVIRANUS (Gottfried Reinhold), born whole of the revolutionary war. At the at Bremen, in July 1776, was eminently'dis- beginning of it, John Trumbull entered. tinguished as a naturalist and physiologist. the army. He acted for a short time as After the usual preparatory education, he an aide-de-camp of General Washington, went to the university of Göttingen. In and was rapidly promoted, but quitted the 1797, he was appointed professor of mathe- service in February 1777, with the rank matics in the Lyceum of his native city; of colonel, on a point of honour relative to and while he assiduously performed the du- the date of the confirmation by the govties of this office, he also practised medicine ernment of an appointment which he had with a constantly increasing reputation. received from General Gates, to act as He first became known as a writer by a work deputy adjutant-general in the northern entitled "Physiological Fragments" (2 vols. department.-Colonel Trumbull then ap1797-99), which, however, was merely plied himself to painting (chiefly at Bosthe precursor of his "Biology, or Philoso- ton), until he went to Europe, in May phy of Living Nature" (6 vols. 1802-22), 1780; excepting only for a short period in on which his reputation is chiefly founded. the summer of 1778, when he accompaThe period of 20 years, which inter- nied, as a volunteer, the expedition under vened between the appearance of the first General Sullivan for the recovery of and last volumes, necessarily left the ear- Rhode Island from the enemy. Previously lier portion of it in many respects defec- to embarking for 'Europe, Colonel Trumtive. This circumstance induced the au- bull, through the instrumentality of Mr., thor to publish an additional treatise, afterwards Sir John Temple, with whom abridging, and at the same time supplying | he had become acquainted at Boston, had VOL. XIV.-74 subsistence, being reduced to the neces- 66 obtained permission from the British gov- | however, he was unable to earn a present ernment to reside in London, in order that he might have the benefit of his countryman West's instructions in painting. Besides spending some time in England, he also visited the neighbouring parts of the European continent; and he returned to America in January 1783. He was now tempted, by a favourable offer made to him by some of his friends, to engage in a mercantile employment; while his father urged him earnestly to select the law as his occupation for life. It was only at the close of the year that he decided, in preference to either of these courses, to become an artist by profession. With this object in view, he embarked again for Europe, and arrived in London in January 1784. His absence from his native country was protracted for a period of 20 years, which was not altogether occupied with the practice of his art. He found leisure to travel in France, Germany, and the Netherlands, and to act as a fifth commissioner, under "Jay's treaty," for the settlement of American claims upon England. On his return to the United States, ⚫ in 1804, Colonel Trumbull established himself as a portrait painter in New York. Here, however, he continued only until the 15th of December 1808, when he embarked, for the third time, for Europe. At London, he resumed his profession, and executed several large pictures and many portraits; but his pecuniary receipts were not equal to his expenses. He became embarrassed, and resolved to return to America. But before he had made his arrangements to do so, the war be-nual appropriation is made for its increase. tween the United States and Great Britain intervened, and constrained him to remain abroad until after its close. He reached New York in September 1816.-In 1817, Colonel Trumbull was employed by the U. S. government to paint four pictures, to be placed in the Rotunda of the Capitol at Washington, and the subjects of which were to be the Declaration of Independence, the Surrender at Saratoga, the Sur-ping. The engineer, Mr. Brunel, proposed render of Cornwallis, and the Resignation of General Washington at Annapolis. They were completed in 1824, and are preserved in the place for which they were destined. The whole, or the greater part, of the sum of $32,000, which was paid for these paintings, seems to have been appropriated to the payment of Colonel Trumbull's debts. He had the world, as he tells us, to begin anew, and lost no time in commencing a new series of his paintings on historical subjects, on a diminished scale. In the mean time, TÜBINGEN.* The university of this town has continued to flourish. It was attended, in 1835, by 734 students; of whom 289 studied theology, 82 law, 166 medicine and surgery, and 181 attended lectures in the faculty of philosophy. The number of students was stated to amount, in 1841, to 740. The university library contains 140,000 volumes, and a large an TUNNEL; a passage constructed under ground. Some tunnels are cut through hills to continue the lines of canals; and others are formed on the lines of railroad, where steep hills render them necessary. The most extraordinary undertaking of the kind, however, which has hitherto been executed, is the tunnel under the bed of the Thames, from Rotherhithe to Wap the plan of it in 1823; the act of parliament authorizing its construction was obtained in June 1824; and shortly afterwards the work was begun at Rotherhithe. The excavation is 38 feet in breadth, and 22 feet in height, presenting a sectional area of 850 feet; and the base, at the deepest part of the river, is 76 feet below high-water mark. The body of the tunnel is of brickwork, in Roman cement. Its entire length is 1300 feet; and the expense is said to have been £1200 per yard. TURKEY.* In the article Ottoman Em TURKEY. pire, in a previous volume, a sketch was given of the history of Turkey down to the treaty of Adrianople, in September 1829. By the terms of it, the sultan, Mahmoud II., besides formally acknowledging the independence of the Greeks, recognised the protectorship of Russia over the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia; and he also ceded to his powerful northern neighbour a district of Asiatic Turkey, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea. But the results of the treaty were, in fact, far more important than those which appeared on the face of it; for the influence of the Russian counsels in the affairs of the Porte became thenceforth almost unlimited. On the return of peace, Mahmoud lost no time in resuming his schemes of civil and military reform; and thus rendered his government to such a degree unpopular that insurrections broke out against his authority | in different parts of his empire, in Albania, in Bosnia, at Bagdad, and elsewhere. It required nearly two years to reduce the rebels to subjection. Scarcely, too, had this been accomplished, when the sultan became involved in a conflict with the pacha or viceroy of Egypt, Mehemed Ali, which speedily threatened his entire overthrow, a result that was, not improbably, only prevented by the intervention of the great European powers, and especially of Russia. The demands made on Mehemed Ali for arrears of tribute were refused, on the ground of the extraordinary expenses incurred by him in the equipment and support of the Egyptian force under his son İbrahim, in the Morea, during the Greek war. On the other hand, the Porte declined to comply with the request of Mehemed Ali to be permitted to fight out his own quarrel with the pacha of Acre, without interference from Constantinople. The irritation between the parties in question now became extreme; and the viceroy did not hesitate to attempt the accomplishment of his designs, in despite of the opposition to them which he had met with. An Egyptian army, commanded by Ibrahim, invaded Syria. Having besieged and taken Acre, Ibrahim advanced, by Damascus, upon Aleppo, defeating, on his way to the latter city, a body of 25,000 Turks. The campaign was terminated by the total defeat of the Turkish army in the battle of Konieh, on the 21st of December (1832). Then followed the convention of Kutaieh, and the cession, by the Porte, to Mehemed Ali, of the whole of Syria, together with the district of Adana. As a reward to Russia for its prompt and effective intervention for the protection of Constantinople 587 (a Russian squadron having entered the Bosphorus, and a Russian military force having been landed at Bujukdere for this purpose), that power acquired, by means of a secret treaty concluded on the 8th of July 1833, at Unkiar Skelessi, the privilege, for her vessels, of passing through the straits dividing Europe from Asia; and the Porte engaged, besides, to keep these straits closed against every nation that should become engaged in a war with Russia.-Hostilities between the Porte and the viceroy of Egypt were renewed in 1839; and a decisive battle was fought on the 23d of June of that year, at Nezib, not far from the city of Aleppo. Ibrahim inflicted another severe defeat on the Turkish arms. This event was followed, on the 1st of July, by the death of Mahmoud II., and the accession to the throne of his eldest son, Abdul Medgid, a youth of only 16 years of age. And a fortnight afterwards, another terrible blow was given to the Turkish power by the desertion of the Capudan pacha, who went over to Mehemed Ali, with the fleet under his command.-The five great powers now again proposed to mediate between the contending parties, and to constrain them to conclude a peace, on such terms as those powers should dictate. But the mediators very soon disagreed among themselves; France evincing a disposition to espouse the interests of the Egyptian viceroy, to an extent altogether at variance with the views of either Russia, Prussia, Austria, or Great Britain. A treaty was, in consequence, signed at London, on the 15th of July 1840, by the representatives of these powers only, by which it was determined that the whole of Syria should be ceded back to the Porte, and that Mehemed Ali should thenceforth be obliged to content himself with ruling over Egypt. At this proceeding, great umbrage was taken by France; and vast preparations were made in that country in anticipation of a European war. But the promptitude with which the allies of Turkey, as the parties to the "treaty of July" may be called, acted, and especially Great Britain, brought matters to an issue, before the French ministry, then presided over by M. Thiers, could take any effectual step to furnish assistance to Mehemed Ali. A British and Austrian naval armament appeared on the coast of Syria, which, cooperating with a Turkish land force, in a very short time compelled the troops of the viceroy to evacuate Syria, and retire into the pachalic of Egypt, as well as exacted from him a restitution of the Turkish fleet, which had been delivered up to 588 TURKEY-UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. him by the Capudan Pacha. The Porte retained permanent possession of Syria; but was induced, in January 1841, by the urgent requests preferred to it by the French ambassador at Constantinople, to concede to Mehemed Ali the hereditary government of Egypt. Harmony was, also, completely restored between France and the other great powers, by a treaty concluded at London, July 13th 1841, which once more excluded foreign vessels of war of all descriptions, Russian as well as of every other nation, from the Darda nelles. Since then, the external relations U. [HLAND* published, in 1822, an ac- Scotland.. Ireland... U count of the Minnesinger, Walther stands in the British Seas von der Vogelweide; in 1836, an essay on "the Scandinavian myth of Thor;" and, since then, his "Researches concerning Poetical Traditions." UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. According to the census of 1841, the population of Great Britain and Ireland, including the army and navy, was as follows: 8,175,124 255,070 407,723 20,330 Total, 2,692,677 The army, navy, &c., was, in the same time, diminished from 277,017 to the number stated above. Deducting therefore the amount of this diminution from the preceding 2,692,677, the actual increase of population from 1831 to 1841 will be found to have been 2,609,129. 14,995,138 The emigration in the same period, 911,603 from England and Wales, is stated to have 2,620,184 amounted to 429,775. The number of 193,469 emigrants from Ireland to the British colonies and the United States was 453,459, and to Great Britain 104,814. 124,040 Total, 27,019,558 The following is a statement of the number of emigrants that left the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during each of the 20 years ending with 1844, and also of their destination. |