CHAPTER V.

AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE agriculture of the United States of America is as variable as its climates. The following account of it we have grounded on the best practical American authorities, who generally deprecate the backward and slovenly condition of American husbandry; and upon our personal observations on the subject.*

We do not, however, generally agree with them, for we know many extensive districts in England, and on the continent of Europe, where far more ignorant and careless husbandry prevails than in the United States of America, or in the British North American possessions. In giving a brief statistical account of the agriculture of America, we must confine our limits, first, to the wheat and other grain-growing countries; second, to the countries where cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, are the staple crops.

Before the close of the revolutionary war, very little cotton and no sugar-cane were cultivated. As to the former depressed state of husbandry, and the progress of its improvement, we find some difference of opinion among the American writers on agriculture. "It is, indeed, a lamentable truth," says Mr. Watson, "that, for the most part, our knowledge and practice of agriculture, at the close of the revolutionary war, were in a state of demi-barbarism, with some solitary exceptions. The labours, I may say, of only three agricultural societies in America, at that epoch, conducted by ardent patriots, by philosophers, and gentlemen, in New York state, Philadelphia, and Boston, kept alive a spirit of inquiry, often resulting in useful and practical operations; and yet these measures did not reach the doors of practical farmers to any visible extent. Nor was their plan of organisation calculated to infuse a spirit of emulation, which county or state should excel in the honourable strife of competition in discoveries and improvements, in drawing from the soil the greatest quantum of net profits within a given space; at the same time, keeping the land in an improving condition, in reference to its native vigour. These results, and the renovation of lands exhausted by means of a barbarous course of husbandry, for nearly two centuries, are the cardinal points now in progression in our old settled countries, stimulated by the influence of agricultural societies. Nor did their measures produce any essential or extensive effects in the improvement of the breeds of

*Washington, considering the then state of agriculture in Europe, was a skilful agriculturist in America. Livingston, Powell, and Judge Buel, have been great benefactors. The reports of the latter- "American Husbandry," by Messrs. Willis Gaylord, and Luther Tucker, "The Cultivator," "The Genessee Farmer," "The Book of the United States," "The Official Returns to Congress," The Reports of Henry L. Ellsworth, Esq., The Reports of New York, Massachusetts, and other Agricultural Societies, "The Farmers' Instructor," by Judge Buel, "The Cultivation of Cotton," by Mr. Seabrook, President of the Agricultural Society of South Carolina; various private communications and personal observations, are our authorities for this account of the agriculture of the United States of America.

domestic animals; much less in exciting to rival efforts the female portion of the community, in calling forth the active energies of our native resources in relation to household manufactures. The scene is now happily reversed in all directions. Perhaps there is no instance, in any age or country, where a whole nation has emerged, in so short a period, from such general depression, into such a rapid change in the several branches to which I have already alluded; in some instances, it has been like the work of magic."

The early neglect of agriculture is traced to various causes. The first settlements were made along the shores of the ocean and bays, or on the banks of rivers. The population was scattered along the sea coast, where enterprise was directed, as the readiest means of employment to the fisheries and navigation. The cultivation of the soil was limited to the production of the necessaries of life. Agriculture did not generally attract industry, though it was found far more certain than other pursuits. The more immediately lucrative pursuits of trade and navigation, were preferred to the more enduring labour of cultivating the soil, and, to the more distant time required to await its profits, or casualties.

When we, however, consider the formidable and disheartening difficulties that the wilds of America have presented, and, in the remote districts of America, still present to the new settler, we are not surprised at the slow, but at the comparatively rapid, progress of agriculture.

It is curious and interesting to observe the progress which a new settler makes in clearing and cultivating a wood farm, from the period he commences in the forests until he has reclaimed a sufficient quantity of land to enable him to follow the mode of cultivation which is practised in old agricultural countries. As the same course is, with little variation, followed by all new settlers in every part of America, the following description, which we drew from observation, may be useful to those who are about to emigrate.

The first object is to select the farm among such vacant lands as are most desirable; and, after obtaining the necessary tenure, the settler commences (the nearest inhabitants usually assisting him) by cutting down the trees on the site of his intended habitation, and those growing on the ground immediately adjoining. This operation is performed with the axe, by cutting a notch on each side of the tree, about two feet above the ground, and rather more than half through on the side on which it is intended the tree should fall.

The trees are all felled in the same direction; and, after lopping off the principal branches, cut into ten or fifteen feet lengths. On the spot on which his dwelling is to be erected, these junks are all rolled away, and the smaller parts carried off or burnt.

The habitations which the new settlers first erect, are all nearly in the same style, and constructed in the rudest manner. Round logs, from fifteen to twenty feet long, without the least dressing, are laid horizontally over each other,

and notched in at the corners to allow them to come along the walls within about an inch of each other. One is first laid on each side to begin the walls, then one at each end, and the building is raised in this manner by a succession of logs crossing and binding each other at the corners, until seven or eight feet high. The seams are closed with moss or clay; three or four rafters are then raised to support the roof, which is covered with boards, or, with the rinds of birch or spruce trees, bound down with poles tied together with withes. A wooden frame work, placed on a foundation of stone, roughly dressed, is raised a few feet from the ground, and leading through the roof with its sides closed up with clay and straw kneaded together, forms the chimney. A space large enough for a door, and another for a window, is then cut through the walls; and, in the centre of the cabin, a square pit or cellar is dug, for the purpose of preserving potatoes or other vegetables during winter. Over this pit a floor of boards, or of logs hewn flat on the upper side, is laid, and another over head to form a sort of garret. When a door is hung, a window-sash with six, nine, or sometimes twelve panes of glass is fixed, a cupboard and two or three bed stocks put up; the habitation is then considered ready to receive the new settler and his family. Although such a dwelling has nothing attractive in its appearance, unless it be its rudeness, yet it is by no means so uncomfortable a lodging as the habitations of the poor peasantry in Ireland, and in some parts of England and Scotland. New settlers who have the means build much better houses at first, with two or more rooms; but the majority of emigrants live for a few years in habitations similar to the one here described; after which, a good comfortable house is built by all steady, industrious settlers.

When the occupant or first settler of new land or forest finds himself in comfortable circumstances, he builds what is styled a frame house, composed of timber, held together by tenons, mortices, and pins, and boarded, shingled, and clapboarded on the outside, and often painted white, sometimes red. Houses of this kind generally contain a dining-room and kitchen, and three or four bed-rooms on the same floor. They are rarely destitute of good cellars, which the nature of the climate renders almost indispensable. The farm-buildings consist of a barn, proportioned to the size of the farm, with stalls for horses and cows on each side, and a threshing-floor in the middle; and the more wealthy farmers add a cellar under the barn, a part of which receives the manure from the stalls, and another part serves as a store-room for roots, &c., for feeding stock. What is called a corn-barn is likewise very common, which is built exclusively for storing the ears of Indian corn. The sleepers of this building are generally set up four or five feet from the ground, on smooth stone posts or pillars, which rats, mice, or other vermin cannot ascend.

Previous to commencing the cultivation of woodlands, the trees which are cut down, lopped, and cut into lengths are, when the proper season arrives

(generally in May), set on fire, which consumes all the branches and small wood. The logs are then either piled in heaps and burnt, or rolled away for making a fence. Those who can afford it, use oxen to haul off the large unconsumed timber. The surface of the ground and the remaining wood is all black and charred; and working on it, and preparing the soil for seed, is as disagreeable, at first, as any labour in which a man can be engaged. Men, women, and children, must, however, employ themselves in gathering and burning the rubbish, and in such parts of labour as their respective strengths adapt them for. If the ground be intended for grain, it is generally sown without tillage over the surface, and the seed covered in with a hoe. By some a triangular harrow, which shortens labour, is used instead of the hoe, and drawn by oxen. Others break up the earth with a one-handled plough, the old Dutch plough, which has the share and coulter locked into each other, drawn also by oxen, while a man attends with an axe to cut the roots in its way. Little regard is paid, in this case, to make straight furrows, the object being no more than to break up the ground. With such rude preparation, however, three successive good crops are raised on fertile uplands without any manure; intervale lands, being fertilised by irrigation, never require any. Potatoes are planted (in new lands) in round hollows, scooped with the hoe four or five inches deep, and about forty in circumference, in which three or five sets are planted and covered over with a hoe. Indian corn, pumpkins, cucumbers, peas, and beans, are cultivated in new lands, in the same manner as potatoes. Grain of all kinds, turnips, hemp, flax, and grass seeds, are sown over the surface, and covered by means of a hoe, rake, or triangular harrow; wheat is usually sown on the same ground the year after potatoes, without any tillage, but merely covering the seed with a rake or harrow, and followed the third year by oats. Some farmers, and it is certainly a prudent plan, sow timothy and clover seed the second year, along with the wheat, and afterwards let the ground remain under grass, until the stumps of the trees can be easily got out, which usually requires three or four years. With a little additional labour, these obstructions to ploughing might be removed the second year, and there appears little difficulty in constructing a machine on the lever principle, that would readily remove them at once. The roots of beech, birch, and spruce, decay the soonest: those of pine and hemlock seem to require an age. After the stumps are removed from the soil, and those small natural hillocks called cradle hills, caused by the ground swelling near the roots of trees in consequence of their growth, are levelled, the plough may always be used, and the system of husbandry followed that is most approved of in England or Scotland. The foregoing remarks we drew up, from our observations on husbandry, in the counties north of Pennsylvania.

The following extracts on the subject of clearing lands is extracted from observations by Samuel Preston, of Stockport, Pennsylvania, a very observing cultivator. Previous to undertaking to clear land, Mr. Preston advises,—“ 1st.

Take a view of all large trees, and see which way they may be felled for the greatest number of small trees to be felled alongside or on them. After felling the large trees, only lop down their limbs; but all such as are felled near them should be cut in suitable lengths for two men to roll and pile about the large trees, by which means they may be nearly all burned up, without cutting into lengths, or the expense of a strong team to draw them together. 2ndly. Fell all the other trees parallel, and cut them into suitable lengths, that they may be readily rolled together without a team, always cutting the largest trees first, that the smallest may be loose on the top, to feed the fires. 3rdly. On hill sides, fell the timber in a level direction; then the logs will rol. together but if the trees are felled down hill, all the logs must be turned round before they can be rolled, and there will be stumps in the way. 4thly. By following these directions, two men may readily heap and burn most of the timber without requiring any team; and perhaps the brands and the remains of the log heaps may all be wanted to burn up the old fallen trees. After proceeding as directed, the ground would be clear for a team and sled to draw the remains of the heaps where they may be wanted round the old logs. Never attempt either to chop or draw a large log, until the size and weight are reduced by fire. The more fireheaps there are made on the clearing the better, particularly about the old logs, where there is rotten wood.

"The best time of the year to fell the timber, in a great measure, depends on the season's being wet or dry. Most people prefer having it felled in the month of June, when the leaves are of full size. Then, by spreading the leaves and brush over the ground (for they should not be heaped), if there should be a very dry time the next May, fire may be turned through it, and will burn the leaves, limbs, and top of the ground, so that a very good crop of Indian corn and pumpkins may be raised among the logs by hoeing. After these crops come off, the land may be cleared and sowed late with rye and timothy grass, or with oats and timothy in the spring. If what is called a good burn cannot be had in May, keep the fire out until some very dry time in July or August; then clear off the land, and sow wheat or rye and timothy, harrowing several times, both before and after sowing; for, after the fire has been over the ground, the sod of timothy should be introduced as soon as the other crops will admit, to prevent briers, alders, fire-cherries, &c., from springing up from such seeds as were not consumed by the fire.

"The timothy should stand four or five years, either for mowing or pasture, until the small roots of the forest trees are rotten; then it may be ploughed; and the best mode which I have observed, is to plough it very shallow in the autumn; in the spring, cross-plough it deeper, harrow it well, and it will produce a firstrate crop of Indian corn and potatoes, and, the next season, the largest and best crop of flax that I have ever seen, and be in order to cultivate with any kinds of grain, or to lay down again with grass. These directions are to be understood as