*

respect to witchcraft, had gradually vanished as knowledge was increased by the study of the classics and of natural philosophy. Halle became for this second period of the Reformation what Wittenberg had been for the first. As Luther formerly struggled against the monks and monkish superstition, Thomasius [A. D. 1728] combated Lutheran orthodoxy, overthrew the belief in witchcraft, and reintroduced the use of the German language into the cathedral service, whence it had long been expunged. He was succeeded [A. D. 1754] by the philosopher, Wolf, the scholar of the great Leibnitz, who beneficially enlightened the ideas of the theological students. Before long, neology or the critical study of the Bible, and a positive divinity, which sought to unite the Bible with philosophy, prevailed. The founders of this school were Michaelis at Göttingen, Semler at Halle, and Ernesti at Leipzig. Mosheim at Berlin and Gellert at Leipzig greatly elevated the tone of morality. Spalding already attempted to check the erratic progress of enlightenment. Voltaire's lampoons against Christianity had at that period spread over Germany, and Berlin had become the elysium of free-thinkers. Besides Frederick, Lessing exercised great influence on this party. Nicolai, the noted Berlin bookseller, in his Universal German Library, began a criticism upon all the works published in Germany.† Shortly before this, Thummel had, also at Berlin, brought forward the degraded state of the Protestant clergy in his excellent poem "Wilhelmina ;" Nicolai continued the subject in a romance, "Sebaldus Nothanker," in which he gave a masterly description of the state of the Protestant church at that time and excited a feeling of hatred and contempt against the reigning consistories, with which the wearing of perukes was, among other things, a point of high importance. The Catholic clergy had disdained their adoption; their Protestant brethren, however, opposed them in this as in all other matters, and no Lutheran preacher consequently durst make his appearance in public unperuked. Heaps of controversial works were published on this subject.

* John Joachim Spalding, a celebrated Swedish divine and author, born 1714. He wrote several able works: the "Destination of Man;" Religion the most important Affair of Mankind," etc. Died 1804.Maunder's Biographical Treasury.

66

This work was continued forty years, though Nicolai ceased to edit it at the end of the hundred and seventh volume, in 1792.-TRANSLATOR.

-Mauvillon, Wünsch, and, more especially, Paalzow, wrote with great fanaticism against the Christian religion. Schummel, at Breslau, warned against free-thinking in a romance, entitled "The little Voltaire," which affords a deep insight into the wild confusion of ideas at that time prevalent, and describes the writings, secret societies, and intrigues of the free-thinkers. Barth, at Halle, by means of his popular works, attempted to spread among the people the ideas at that time convulsing the learned world, but was with his Rationalism, which he sought to set up in opposition to Christianity, too shallow and coarse to be attractive.

Liberty of thought had degenerated to free-thinking, and, like every abuse, speedily produced a reaction. John Arndt, a native of Anhalt, published his popular treatise " On true Christianity," in the beginning of the seventeenth century. The learned divines were, notwithstanding, first led to teach a religion of the heart, instead of inculcating a mere deadletter belief, by Spener, who [A. D. 1670] founded a collegium pietatis at Frankfurt a M., and [A. D. 1705] was appointed chaplain to the court at Dresden and provost at Berlin. He replaced Christian love on her rightful throne, and to him is the Protestant church far more deeply indebted than to the philosophers of the day, although his fine and comprehensive ideas were carried but little into practice. He demanded toleration of every confession of faith and their union by Christian love; he rejected the sovereignty assumed by the state over the church as well as the authority of the consistories and faculties, and aimed at the emancipation of the Christian commonwealth.* His followers, the Pietists, who have been greatly calumniated, were grievously persecuted on account of their extravagant tendencies. One of their number, Gichtel, the proctor of the imperial chamber, founded the sect of the Engelsbrüder. Hoburg, the Anabaptist, Petersen, the polygrapher, the ill-fated Kuhlmann, who attempted to blend all religions into one but was burnt alive at Moscow, [A. D. 1689,] and several female seers drew general attention. Franke, the worthy founder of the orphan school at Halle, followed in Spener's steps. Pietism took a peculiar form at Herrnhut, where Count Zinzendorf founded a new church of love and fraternity, the members of which obeyed particular laws * Vide Hossbach, Spener.

and wore a particular dress. The gentleness and simplicity of this community strongly contrasted with the wild licence prevalent in Saxony during the reign of Augustus, the reaction to which had given them birth. They termed themselves the Moravian Brethren, some remnants of the ancient Hussites having passed over to them. The accession of numbers of Bohemians belonging to the Lichtenstein estates drew a reclamation from the Saxon government. A number of the Bohemians took refuge in Prussia, and Zinzendorf, who was banished Saxony for ten years, established himself in the ancient Ronneburg in the Wetterau. By his conference with Frederick William I., who learnt to esteem him highly, by his connexion with several other religiously inclined persons of high rank, the Counts Reuss and Dohna, the lords of Seidlitz in Silesia, etc., by his frequent travels and his extreme prudence, he, nevertheless, speedily succeeded in regaining his former footing. As early as 1733, he sent numbers of pilgrims into distant countries for the purpose of propagating religion and of converting the heathen. He twice visited the savages of North America as a missionary. The resolute piety, which induced so many homely artificers to quit all for the sake of propagating the gospel amid the snows of Greenland and Lapland or in the burning climes of the East, where they succeeded in converting great numbers, affords at once a touching and instructive lesson. By means of their colonies, they formed important commercial connexions, created a market for home produce, and, by the credit they acquired by their reputation for the strict uprightness of their dealings, gained immense riches. Their prosperity put their opponents to the blush; they were ridiculed and esteemed. Spangenberg succeeded Zinzendorf as head of the society, whose members are said to have amounted, at the commencement of the present century, to half a million. Their principal towns are Herrnhut, Barby, Neuwied, and Ziest near Utrecht; most of those of lesser note are distinguished by religious or biblical names, such as Gnadenberg, (Gnade, grace,) Gnadenfeld, Gnadenfrei, Gnadenhütte, Gnadenau, Friedenthal, (valley of peace,) Friedenberg, etc., Bethlehem, Nazareth, Salem, Bethany, etc. The child-like simplicity and gentleness of the Herrnhuters highly recommended them as instructors of the

female sex, and, even at the present day, families, not belonging to their society, send their daughters to be educated in these asylums of innocence and piety.- -Pietism spread simultaneously into the Bergland, where it still flourishes in the Wupperthal.

CCXLIII. The liberal tendency of the Universities.

IN proportion as the universities shook off the yoke imposed by theological and juridical ignorance, (vide the trials for witchcraft,) the study of philosophy, languages, history, and the natural sciences gained ground. A wide range was thus opened to learning, and a spirit of liberality began to prevail, which, as the first effect of its cosmopolital tendency, completely blunted the patriotic feelings of the German, by rendering his country a mere secondary object of interest and inquiry.

The struggle between modern ideas and ancient usage began also in the lower academies. Rousseau proposed the fundamental transformation of the human race and the creation of an ideal people by means of education. John Bernard Basedow attempted to put his novel plans of education into practice by the seminary, known as "the Philanthropinum," established by him at Dessau, in which many excellent teachers were formed, and by which great good was effected. Basedow, nevertheless, speedily became bankrupt, to the great delight of the pedants. Salzmann, in his academy of Schnepfenthal near Gotha, stands almost alone in his plan for uniting physical exercise with mental improvement for the attainment of practical ends, for rendering the student a useful citizen, not a mere bookworm. Rochow published his celebrated "Children's Friend," which, together with Gellert's Fables, became a favourite book for the instruction of youth, and involuntarily compelled teachers not merely to inculcate blind belief and to enforce the study of the dead languages, but also to form their pupils' minds by awakening the imagination and strengthening their moral feelings by good examples. This literary attempt, however, speedily degenerated; Weisse published at Leipzig a large "Children's Friend" in 24 volumes, for children of good families, full of unchildlike absurdities. Campe,

by his "New Robinson Crusoe,"* estranged the rising generation in their early childhood from their country and inspired them, perfectly in the spirit of the times, with a love of enterprise and a desire to carry their energies to some foreign or far distant land. Funke taught every thing by rote and smothered originality by assiduously teaching every thing, even how to play. In the popular schools, the catechism, and in the learned academies, grammatical pedantry, were, nevertheless, still retained. The best description of the state of the schools in Germany, during the latter part of the past century, is to be found in Schummel's "Pointed Beard." The new plans of education adopted by a few private establishments and recommended in the numerous new publications on the subject more particularly owed their gradual adoption to the tutors, who, in their freer sphere of action, bestowed their attention upon the arts most useful in practical life, and, out of respect for the parents, introduced a more humane treatment of the children. The biography of "Felix Kaskorbi,” a tutor aged forty, graphically depictures the torments to which he and his colleagues were often exposed in their arduous and useful calling.

Private and individual efforts would, however, have but little availed without the beneficial reformation that took place in the public academies. In England, the study of the ancient classics, so well suited to the stern character and liberal spirit of the people, had produced men noted for depth of learning, by whom the humanities and the spirit of antiquity were revived. Their influence extended to Hanover. At Göttingen, Heyne created a school, which opposed the spirit to the dead letter, and, in the study of the classics, sought not merely an acquaintance with the lauguage but also with the ideas of ancient times, and Winckelmann visited Italy in order to furnish Germany with an account of the relics of antiquity and to inspire his countrymen with a notion of their sublimity and beauty. The attention of the student was drawn to mythology, to ancient history, and an acquaintance with the lives of the ancients led to the knowledge of modern history and geography.

* Which was founded on the popular work of Defoe.-TRANSLAtor.