wanting in any more uniform and limited system such as we might try to imagine; and which of itself gives to the arrangements, by which such a variety on the earth's surface is produced, the character of well devised means to a worthy end.

CHAP. VIII.-The Constituents of Climate.

We have spoken of the steady average of the climate at each place, of the difference of this average at different places, and of the adaptation of organised beings to this character in the laws of the elements by which they are effected. But this steadiness in the general effect of the elements, is the result of an extremely complex and extensive machinery. Climate, in its wider sense, is not one single agent, but is the aggregate result of a great number of different agents, governed by different laws, producing effects of various kinds. The steadiness of this compound agency is not the steadiness of a permanent condition, like that of a body at rest; but it is the steadiness of a state of constant change and movement, succession and alternation, seeming accident and irregularity. It is a perpetual repose, combined with a perpetual motion; and invariable average of most variable quantities. Now, the manner in which such a state of things is produced, deserves, we conceive, a closer consideration. It may be useful to show how the particular laws of the action of each of the elements of climate are so adjusted that they do not disturb this general constancy.

The principal constituents of climate are the fol

lowing:-the temperature of the earth, of the water, of the air-the distribution of the aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere: the winds and rains by which the equilibrium of the atmosphere is restored when it is in any degree disturbed. The effects of light, of electricity, probably of other causes also, are no doubt important in the economy of the vegetable world, but these agencies have not been reduced by scientific inquiries to such laws as to admit of their being treated with the same exactness and certainty which we can obtain in the case of those first mentioned. We shall proceed to trace some of the peculiarities in the laws of the different physical agents which are in action at the earth's surface, and the manner in which these peculiarities bear upon the general result.

The Laws of Heat with respect to the Earth.

One of the main causes which determine the temperature of each climate is the effect of the sun's rays on the solid mass of the earth. The laws of this operation have been recently made out with considerable exactness, experimentally by Leslie, theoretically by Fourrier, and by other inquirers. The theoretical inquiries have required the application of very complex and abstruse mathematical investigations; but the general character of the operation may, perhaps, be made easily intelligible.

The earth, like all solid bodies, transmits into its interior the impressions of heat which it receives at the surface; and throws off the superfluous heat from its surface into the surrounding space. These processes

F

are called conduction and radiation, and have each their ascertained mathematical laws.

By the laws of conduction, the daily impressions of heat which the earth receives, follow each other into the interior of the mass, like the waves which start from the edge of a canal; * and like them, become more and more faint as they proceed, till they melt into the general level of the internal temperature. The heat thus transmitted is accumulated in the interior of the earth, as in a reservoir, and flows from one part to another of this reservoir. The parts of the earth near the equator are more heated by the sun than other parts, and on this account there is a perpetual internal conduction of heat from the equatorial to other parts of the sphere. And as all parts of the surface throw off heat by radiation, in the polar regions, where the surface receives little in return from the sun, a constant waste is produced. There is thus from the polar parts a perpetual dispersion of heat in the surrounding space, which is supplied by a perpetual internal flow from the equator towards each pole.

Here, then, is a kind of circulation of heat; and the quantity and rapidity of this circulation, determine the quantity of heat in the solid part of the earth, and in each portion of it; and through this,

*The resemblance consists in this; that we have a strip of greater temperature accompanied by a strip of smaller temperature, these strips arising from the diurnal and nocturnal impressions respectively, and being in motion; as in the waves of a canal, we have a moving strip of greater elevation accompanied by a strip of smaller elevation. We do not here refer to any hypothetical undulations in the fluid matter of heat.

the mean temperature belonging to each point on its surface.

If the earth conducted heat more rapidly than it does, the inequalities of temperature would be more quickly balanced, and the temperature of the ground in different parts of the globe of the earth (below the reach of annual and diurnal variations), would differ less than it does. If the surface radiated more rapidly than it does, the flow of heat from the polar regions would increase, and the temperature of the interior of the globe would find a lower level; the differences of temperature in different latitudes would increase, but the mean temperature of the globe would diminish.

There is nothing which, so far as we can perceive, determines necessarily, either the conducting or the radiating power of the earth to its present value. The measures of such powers, in different substances, differ very widely. If the earth were a globe of pure iron, it would conduct heat, probably, twenty times as well as it does; if its surface were polished iron, it would only radiate one-sixth as much as it does. Changes in the amount of the conduction and radiation far less than these, would, probably, subvert the whole thermal constitution of the earth, and make it uninhabitable by any of its present vegetable or animal tenants.

One of the results of the laws of heat, as they exist in the globe, is, that, by their action, the thermal state tends to a limited condition, which, once reached, remains constant and steady, as it now is. The oscillations or excursions from the mean condition, produced by any temporary cause, are rapidly suppressed; the

deviations of seasons from their usual standard produce only a small and transient effect. The impression of an extremely hot day upon the ground melts almost immediately into the average internal heat. The effect of a hot summer, in like manner, is soon lost in its progress through the globe. If this were otherwise, if the inequalities and oscillations of heat went on, through the interior of the earth, retaining the same value, or becoming larger and larger, we might have the extreme heats or colds of one place making their appearance at another place after a long interval; like a conflagration which creeps along a street and bursts out at a point remote from its origin.

It appears, therefore, that both the present differences of climate, and the steadiness of the average at each place, depend upon the form of the present laws of heat, and on the arbitrary magnitudes which determine the rate of conduction and radiation. The laws are such as to secure us from increasing and destructive inequalities of heat; the arbitrary magnitudes are data to which the organic world is adjusted.

CHAP. IX.-The Laws of Heat with respect to Water.

THE manner in which heat is transmitted through fluids is altogether different from the mode in which it passes through solids; and hence the waters of the earth's surface produce peculiar effects upon its condition as to temperature. Moreover, water is susceptible of evaporation in a degree depending upon the increase of heat; and in consequence of this property it has