prominent part in the nervous actions, whether they are prompted by mental change or are purely corporeal, should exhibit scarcely any more complexity of structure than that which is found in the simplest animal or vegetable textures, or in structures that have not passed their earliest phase of development, is an anatomical fact pregnant with great physiological interest. Have this simplicity of form and delicacy of structure reference to the celerity of the nervous actions? or to that proneness to change which must be induced by the constant and unceasing round of impressions, which the gray matter must receive from the ordinary nutrient actions that are going on in the body, as well as from the continual action of thoughts? If, according to common acceptation, we admit that the mind has some immediate connexion with the cerebral convolutions, it may well be imagined that no part of the frame can be the seat of such active change, from its being, on the one hand, the recipient of impressions from the body, and, on the other, from an association with the psychical principle so intimate that probably, under ordinary circumstances, an affection of the one cannot occur without being communicated to, and producing a change in the other.

"Another curious fact, in connexion with the intimate structure of the gray nervous matter, is the large quantity of pigment or colouring matter which exists in it, and which appears to form one of its essential constituents, more abundant in some situations than in others, but present in all. We are utterly ignorant of the design of this peculiarity of structure. If this pigment bear any resemblance in chemical composition to the colouring matter of the blood, hæmatosine,—and it is not improbable that it does,-an increased interest attaches to the practical importance of minute attention, on the part of practitioners, to avail themselves of all the means which are capable of improving that important element of the nutrient fluid both in quantity and quality; for it is most reasonable to presume that the pigment of the nervous matter would derive its nutriment from that of the blood." (p. 72.)

In regard to the connexion between the nutrition and waste of the vesicular matter of the nervous system, on the one hand, and the degree of its vital activity, on the other, our own mind has long been completely made up; and we have, on several former occasions, expressed our conviction, with some of the reasons on which it is founded, in the pages of this Journal. The idea started by Dr. Todd, in regard to the relation between the pigment-granules, which seem to form an essential constituent of the cells of the gray matter, and the hæmatosine, which is contained within the red corpuscles, and which is manufactured (so to speak) by them, appears to us to be one of peculiar interest; and it derives increased weight from the disturbance of the functions of the nervous system, which invariably manifests itself, when there is any considerable deficiency in the proportion of red corpuscles in the blood.

By way of sample of the descriptions of the structure of the brain itself we may quote the following passages relative to the Mesocephale; a term which may be new to some of our readers, but which was first suggested by Chaussier, as applicable to that part of the encephalic mass, in which the fibres of the different parts come into close relation.

"The pyramidal and olivary columns may be readily traced, as already explained, from the medulla oblongata up to the cerebral hemispheres, the former becoming united chiefly with the corpora striata, the latter with the optic thalami. In that part of their course which is intermediate to the medulla oblongata, these columns become mingled with certain transverse fibres, and with more or less of vesicular matter, and with them contribute to form a mass which is the connecting link between all the segments of the cerebellum, and

may be compared to a railroad station, at which several lines meet and cross each other." (p. 180.)

We think that this simile may be carried a little further, since the mesocephale is not only a point for the intercommunication of different tracks, but is also a centre from which new trains may start, in virtue of the vesicular matter which forms a part of it. We are constrained to notice that the preceding extract does not afford a very favorable sample of Dr. Todd's style. We are at a loss to attach any distinct idea to the words, "intermediate to the medulla oblongata ;" we know that one thing may be intermediate between two others, but to say that it can be intermediate to one other, is surely rather Irish than English. Again, we cannot but think that Dr. Todd meant to say that the mesocephalic mass is the connecting link between the segments, not of the cerebellum alone, but of the encephalon generally. We have noticed more than one important error of this description, which is obvious enough to the wellinformed reader, but which is calculated to mislead the student. For example, in the description of the corpus callosum (p. 234-5), we find that, by dissection in a hardened brain, "it may be detached from the substance of the hemispheres as far outwards as the external border of the corpus callosum and optic thalamus." It is evidently the corpus striatum which is referred to in the last clause.-To return, however, to the mesocephale. After a full description of the several parts that enter into its formation, Dr. Todd continues:

"From the preceding description of the mesocephale, it may be concluded that two classes of elements enter into its formation. These are intrinsic and extrinsie. The former consists of the masses of vesicular matter, with which the fibrous matter, whatever be its course, is intimately connected. Such are the gray matter of the quadrigeminal bodies, that light gray matter which surrounds the olivary columns in their upward course, the darker matter which intervenes between the transverse fibrous lamellæ, and, more in front, that which forms the locus niger of the crus cerebri.

"The extrinsic elements are those which pass through this segment, being continuous with some portion of a neighbouring segment, or serving to connect the gray matter of the mesocephale with the hemispheres of the cerebrum or cerebellum, or with the medulla oblongata. The fibres which form the inferior layer of the pons are perhaps the only element that does not connect itself in some way with the gray matter of the mesocephale, since they seem simply to pass across from one crus cerebelli to the other. The deeper transverse fibres, the pyramids, the olivary columns, the processus cerebelli ad testes, all connect the neighbouring parts with the intrinsic matter of the mesocephale.

"It is plain, then, that anatomy affords abundant grounds for the conclusion that the mesocephale must be regarded as a distinct centre, connected by numerous bonds of union to the other segments of the brain." (p. 187.)

Correct as this description is in regard to the human brain, when considered independently, we still think it highly objectionable to include the corpora quadrigemina as a part of the mesocephale; since we learn from comparative anatomy that their analogues in the lower animals are as distinct from all the other divisions of the encephalon, as these are from each other. In regard to the Olfactory lobes, Dr. Todd fully develops the correct view, and justly remarks that it is high time for the designation of olfactory nerves to cease, as applied to those processes of cerebral

matter, which lie upon the upper surface of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. He points out their distinctly ganglionic character, as evinced by the intermixture of vesicular with fibrous structure; and he notices the ventricle contained in the olfactory bulb, which is evident enough in the lower mammals, as well as in the human foetus at an early period. Why, then, if it be desirable to impress on the student correct notions regarding the nature of this body, does he include it among the encephalic nerves? Surely, in a scientific description of the brain, it ought to occupy as conspicuous a place as the mesocephale and the optic ganglia. And, we would add, is not the gray matter of the olivary columns really to be considered as forming auditory ganglia, connected as those columns are with the implantation of the auditory nerve?

We have looked with especial interest at those portions of the Treatise which relate to connexion between the spinal cord and its nerves; a question of particular importance, in regard to the physiological inferences to be derived from anatomical research, and one upon which there is still much discrepancy of opinion. Many of our readers doubtless recollect the time, when the spinal cord was commonly taught to be little else than a bundle of nerves proceeding from the brain, and when it was supposed that all the fibres which enter it from the nerve-roots pass upwards to the latter organ. This always seemed to us to be Sir C. Bell's view of its nature. When Mr. Grainger first enunciated the fact, that some of the fibres of each root lose themselves in the gray matter of the cord, his statement was received with suspicion. Yet now this seems abundantly confirmed; and with some anatomists the tide of opinion sets just the other way, their question being, whether all the fibres of the roots of the spinal nerves are not thus lost in its gray matter, and whether any have a direct connexion with the brain. Dr. Todd states that he is satisfied, by his own dissections, of Mr. Grainger's accuracy, in regard to the passage of certain fibres of the roots of the nerves into the gray matter of the cord; but he seems very doubtful as to the possibility of tracing the continuity of any of the nerve-roots with the white strands, as represented by Mr. Grainger, and consequently as to the existence of a distinct set of cerebral fibres. Of the former he says:

"From a careful review of the preceding statements, it is plain that a large number of fibres pass into the gray matter of the cord, and probably form some intimate connexion with its minute elements; and this fact is favorable to the supposition that the spinal nerves derive their origin, at least partly, from the gray matter. It must be admitted either that these fibres unite in some way with the vesicles of the spinal gray matter, or that they pass through it up to the brain, in the gray matter of which they become implanted; the former seems the most reasonable supposition, and more consistent with the apparent oblique or transverse direction which the fibres take in the gray matter." (p. 273)

We may then regard the title of the spinal cord to the character of a distinct ganglionic centre, to be anatomically as well as physiologically proved. For a solution of the difficulty under which Dr. Todd labours, in regard to the connexion between the roots of the spinal nerves and the brain, through the white or fibrous portion of the cord, we would again refer him and other anatomists who experience the same difficulty,

to the ventral cord of the articulata, which differs in no other obvious particular from the spinal cord of vertebrata, than in the want of continuity of the ganglionic portion, so that a number of distinct centres are formed by it, instead of one long tract; and this is in strict accordance with the general character of the group, which is that of segmental independence. We cannot, from our own investigations, feel the least doubt that a portion of the roots of the nerves of those animals is directly continuous, through the fibrous tract, with the cephalic ganglia, which represent the brain of vertebrata, whilst another portion has a distinct connexion with the ganglia of the cord. The fact is the more valuable since it was first announced by Mr. Newport, without any reference to the physiological inferences which are now founded upon it.

We now take our leave of this Treatise; cordially recommending it to the student as being, in spite of its defects, by far the best guide to the study of the Anatomy of the Human Brain which we possess. When it arrives at another edition, we would suggest to Dr. Todd whether it might not be advantageously increased to a small extent, by the introduction of a little more comparative anatomy,-not in a systematic form, but in such a shape as to illustrate some of the obscurities, which are inseparable from the isolated study of the human brain, and which are still numerous enough, when all the light has been thrown upon it that can be collected from extraneous sources. We may hint, also, that the wood engravings, some of them very elaborate ones, which add much to the value of the descriptions, would be rendered more useful, as well as more pleasing to the eye, by a higher style of presswork. It is lamentable to see so many good drawings, which have all the appearance of being carefully engraved, treated with such injustice by the printer.

ART. XI.

Vermischte Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der Heilkunde, von einer Gesellschaft practischer Aerzte zu St. Petersburg. Sechste Sammlung. -St. Petersburg, 1842.

Medical Essays. By a Society of Physicians in St. Petersburg. Volume the Sixth.-St. Petersburg, 1842. 8vo, pp. 396.

AFTER a period of seven years another volume of Transactions has been published, by the Association of German Physicians, in St. Petersburg. The editors claim the indulgence of the profession for this long delay, on the plea that the printing of German works is encompassed with so many difficulties in the Russian capital, and, also, that unremitting professional labours left to the physician scarce any time for the scientific elucidation of his practice.

The volume before us is the sixth of the series, and without imparting anything very new or extraordinary in medicine, it may yet be considered valuable, as affording a fair criterion of the state of the healing art in St. Petersburg.

I. Statistics and Treatment of Insanity at St. Petersburg; by Dr. Herzog. This is an interesting account of the Asylum for the

Insane in the Russian metropolis. The treatment, and the general management of the unfortunate inmates, appear to be conducted on the most humane and scientific principles. From the ample tables given at the commencement it appears that here, as elsewhere, the bachelor is more liable to insanity than the married man; while, at the same time, the proportion of the insane is much greater in the higher and in the educated classes of society, than among shopkeepers and the artisans and labourers of a still lower grade. More than one half of the cases proved incurable. Of those who recovered, the great majority belonged to the lower classes, and complete returns to health were especially frequent among those individuals who, at an early period of their disorder, had disturbed the public peace and had been in consequence transferred to the asylum. The richer classes, of course, refrain as long as possible from placing their friends and relatives in such institutions, and continue to hope for a cure under imperfect treatment at home, till recovery becomes almost impossible. A full and lengthy account is given of the entire management of the institution, and we here extract a few lines as to the employment of the insane.

"The female lunatics are chiefly busied in the household duties, while the males, during the summer months, are busily occupied with the hay harvest, and in winter, when the severity of the season confines them to the house, they manufacture thousands of pill-boxes, and articles in pasteboard for the supply of the shops of the apothecaries. The more educated are occasionally employed in illuminating manuscripts, and some write to the dictation of others."

In the second portion of this paper, entitled, "Considerations on the treatment of the insane," Dr. Herzog develops his own views of mental disease, and we must allow that they are expressed with that candour and consideration for the opinions of others which is characteristic of a truly scientific mind. With most writers of the present day, Dr. Herzog denies that congestion or inflammation of the brain is necessarily present in insanity, and, if it should occur, he looks upon it rather as a complication and consequence of the malady than as its original cause. Nor does he allow of any close connexion between the suppression of hemorrhoidal or menstrual discharges and the outbreak of insanity. He enumerates the different causes of mental disease, as follows:

1. A certain hitherto unexplained condition of the nervous system characterized by great indifference to external agencies, as to heat, cold, &c. &c., and which cannot be traced to disorder of any particular organ. A similar state of the nervous system is often observed in constitutions worn out by drunkenness or by debauchery.

2. The brain, as the centre of the nervous system, must necessarily be looked upon as intimately connected with insanity, yet inflammations of this organ are not frequent at the commencement of mania, nor are we to regard the supervention of strong pulsations in the carotids, headache, brilliancy of the eyes, or sleeplessness, as indicating inflammatory action at a later period. But Dr. Herzog does not deny that secondary inflammation may arise in the brain, as a consequence of pathological changes which have taken place in that organ, through the influence of maniacal excitement. We must confess that the distinction here drawn is open to objec

XLII.-XXI.

•12