In St. Thomas, for instance, the latter is spoken; in Hayti, French-Creole. Among the numerous corruptions of European words and constructions, we find, very generally, in the Creole dialects, the corruptions of grammar common among children; for instance, me is used instead of I. Often no distinction is made between the possessive pronoun and the personal; e. g., me house for my house, or wi massra for our master. The infinitive is used for the finite tenses, as moi donner for je donne. It is well known that Homer has several deviations from grammar which are now peculiar to children; and the Creole dialects have several peculiarities in common with those used by Hoiner. The mixture of words from different languages is often considerable in these dialects; but most of them can be understood, without a great deal of difficulty, by a man acquainted with English, Danish, French and Spanish. We will give an example of the Papimento language a Creole dialect spoken in St. Thomasfrom a work extracted from the four Gospels, entitled Da Tori va wi Massra en Helpiman Jesus Christus, so leki wi findi datti na inni dem fo Evangeliste: Mattheus, Marcus, Lucas en Johannes, 1816 (The Story of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, as we find it in the four Evangelists, &c.) A part of the first chapter of the Gospel of St. John, from the 4th to the 8th verse, is given in this work, as follows:-Libi ben de na inni va hem, Kaba da libi ben de Kandera va somma. Kaba da Kandera de krini na dungru, ma dungru no ben teki da Kandera. Gado ben senni wan somma, dem kali Johannes, dissi ben Komm va takki vo da Kandera, va dem somma Komm bribi na da Kandera. Hem srefi no da Kandera, ma a ben Komm va takki na somma vo da Kandera. This specimen will give an idea of the strange mixture of words, and of the clumsy periphrases used to express ideas, e. g., libi ben de na inni va hem; of the poverty, e. g., ben for been, has been, has, was, and had, &c. There are, however, in all languages, heavy periphrases, our familiarity with which prevents us from being sensible of them; e. g., je venais de chez moi, or he is about to set out on a journey; which, if we had one word for undertaking a journey, and a tense for expressing the intention, might be expressed in one word. That a careful investigation of the Creole dialects would lead to several interesting discoverles respecting the origin of some grammatical formations and modes of expression, is hardly to be doubted. When the 2

VOL. IV.

allied armies invaded France, and the Russian and German soldiers were often under the necessity of communicating with each other, and with the French, a kind of jargon came into use among them, in which the writer observed that mi-the Low German for me, and pretty nearly resembling the French moi-was used by all parties to express the first person singular. The infinitive was also used instead of the finite modes, expressing only the gross idea of action without modification. Flesh, from the German Fleisch (meat), dobri, from the Russian, for good, were also employed by all parties, as was also the word caput, to signify broken down, spoiled, &c. This last word is still in use among the lower classes of North Germany. Mi flesh caput meant, in this military dialect, my meat is spoiled. Several of the modern European languages must have originated in this way, after the irruption of the northern tribes into the Roman empire.

CRESCENDO, OF CRES. (Ital.) By the term crescendo, the Italians signify that the notes of the passage over which it is placed are to be gradually swelled. This operation is not of modern invention. The ancient Romans, as we learn from a passage in Cicero, were aware of its beauty, and practised it continually.-Crescendo is also the name of a musical instrument, invented in 1778, by the counsellor Bauer, in Berlin, which is played like a piano, and, like this, is furnished with wire strings.

CRESCENT (crescens, Lat.); an emblem, representing the moon in her state of increase. This emblem of the Ottomans is of very high antiquity. The Egyptians had their Isis, the Greeks their Diana, and it is easy to conceive that the crescent, which announced the returning light of the moon, soon became an object of worship with such people. Thus Isis, Diana, and the bull Apis, are decorated with this emblem; which is also found on medals of Alexander, and other ancient monuments of art. The citizens of Athens of illustrious birth wore crescents of ivory and silver upon their buskins; and the same mark of distinction was granted to the patricians and senators of Rome. They were called lunulati calcei. The crescent was often used by females as an ornament for the head; an example of which may be seen on a bust of Marciana, in the Villa Pamfili. On many medals of queens, the bust is supported by a crescent, expressive of the relation they bore to their husbands, who, as kings, were as the sun, while they were as the moon. It is also

14

an emblem of the eternity of an empire. The god Lunus bears it upon his shoulder; and the denarii of the Lucretian family have it accompanied by the Seven Stars of the northern hemisphere. It is also found on medals of many cities, particularly of Byzantium, from whence it is supposed to have been borrowed by the Ottomans. Since their establishment in Europe, it has been the universal emblem of their empire. It decorates their minarets, their turbans, their ensigns, their insignia; every thing appertaining to the Mussulmans is characterized by this sign, and their states are designated as the Empire of the Crescent. During the crusades, particularly, the crescent was the distinguishing symbol of the Mussulmans, as the cross was of the Christians.

CRESCENZI, Pietro, or Petrus de, the restorer of the scientific study of agriculture in Europe, born at Bologna, in 1230, was an attorney and magistrate, till he was obliged, by civil troubles, to leave his native country. He travelled through Italy, and collected useful observations. It was not till after 30 years of absence, when order was at length restored to his native city, that he was permitted to return; and, at the age of 70, he was made senator. He now carried into execution his principles of agriculture, on an estate near Bologna, in the cultivation of which he passed the remainder of his life. See his essay on agriculture (Ruralium Commodorum, 12 books), which he composed at the desire of Charles II. He submitted his work to the examination of learned men in Bologna, by whom it was corrected and improved. It is a remarkable monument of his time, of which it is far in advance. Apostolo Zeno has proved that these 12 books, in the arrangement of which the author seems to have followed Columella, were written originally in Lat

in.

There exists an Italian translation (Il Libro della Agricultura di P. Crescentio, Florence, 1487 et seq.), which is esteemed very highly, on account of the purity of the language, and has given rise to the opinion that Crescenzi wrote in his native tongue. He understood the ancients, and made use of them. His principles are simple, founded upon experience, and free from many prejudices, which continued to prevail in Europe for centuries after. His work was no sooner published, than it spread throughout Europe. It was translated into several European languages, particularly for Charles V of France, in a splendid manuscript (1373), which is still extant; and no soon

er was the art of printing invented, than copies of this work were greatly multiplied. The oldest known edition, which is now very rare, appeared at Augsburg, in 1471, in folio. The earliest Italian translation, the author of which is supposed to be Lorenzo Benvenuti, of St. Geminiano, and which is accounted among the models of language, is contained in the collection of the Classici Italiani (Milan, 1805). A more exact, but a less esteemed translation, was made by Sansovino. We are indebted for much information concerning Crescenzi and his work to professor Filippo Re, at Bologna.

CRESCENZI, D. Juan Baptista, marquis de la Torre, born at Rome towards the end of the 16th century, studied the art of painting under Pomerancias. Some of his early compositions attracted the attention of the pope, Paul V, who intrusted him with the decoration of the Pauline chapel. Cardinal Zapata took him to Spain in 1617, where he obtained the favor of Philip III. Some flower-pieces occasioned his receiving the commission to build the sepulchral monument in the Escurial, the splendor and finished elegance of which place it among the most remarkable monuments of Europe. (See Santo's History of the Escurial, with copperplates.) The bronze figures were executed by Roman artists. Philip IV made him a grandee of Castile, with the title of marquis de la Torre, and conferred upon him other marks of distinction. His house, which contained rich treasures in every branch of art, was ever open to artists. He died in 1660.

CRESCIMBENI, Giovanni Maria, a scholar and poet, was born at Macerata, in the Mark of Ancona, Oct. 9, 1663. When but a child, he displayed an inclination for poetry. Ariosto's verses, in particular, were impressed on his memory by an edition of Orlando Furioso, with copperplates, in which he used to search for and peruse the passages to which the engravings referred. In the Jesuits' college, at Macerata, he wrote, at 13, a tragedy—Darius. At 15, he was a member of an academy, and, at 16, doctor of laws. father sent him, in 1681, to Rome, to perfect himself in the knowledge of law; but he applied himself, with still more zeal, to poetry. Some canzoni of Filicaja, in 1687, gave him correct views of the character of the poetry then in vogue. Dissatisfied with all that he had formerly attempted, he felt himself at once constrained to imitate only the ancient models, and to recommend their simple and natural manner

His

to his contemporaries. Crescimbeni belonged to all the three academies in Rome, which rivalled each other in wretched verses. Out of these, he selected certain members, whose views harmonized with his own, and formed a new academy, which was sportively called the Arcadia, in allusion to the rural taste of the founder. (See Arcadians.) He was the first custode of this academy, under the name of Alfesibeo Cario, and was reelected to the office for several successive Olympiads. Crescimbeni, delighted with the success of his plan, was not the least active among his fellow poets. In 1698 appeared his Istoria della volgar Poesia—a work of vast industry, but destitute of method and criticism. He next published his Trattato della Bellezza della volgar Poesia (Rome, 1700, 4to.), which passed, in a short time, through three editions, and, like the earlier work, was first made capable of being understood and enjoyed by the Commentary intorno alla Storia della volgar Poesia (Rome, 1702, 5 volumes, 4to.). The favor of Clement XI placed him in an easy situation. In the tranquillity of his canonicate, disturbed only by the disputes of the Arcadians, the number of his works rapidly increased. He made a translation of Nostradamus's Lives of the Provençal Poets, with additions, enlarged his own Commentaries with four valuable volumes, and wrote a History of the Arcadia, and Lives of the Arcadian Poets. About this time, also, appeared the two first volumes of verses (Rime) of his Arcadia, which were well received. Clement V and Benedict XIII rewarded his labors with ecclesiastical honors; and John V of Portugal presented the Arcadia with some funds. The society erected a theatre, still existing, on the Janiculum, and their first Olympic games were celebrated Sept. 9, 1726, in honor of the king of Portugal. The poems which Crescimbeni read on that occasion were received with lively approbation. Meanwhile his constitution was yielding to a disorder of the breast. After being admitted, at his request, into the order of the Jesuits, in whose garb he wished to die, he expired, March 8, 1728. During his lifetime, he had caused his monument to be erected in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, with the inscription-I. M. C. P. ARC. C. (Joannes Marius Crescimbenius, Pastorum Arcadum Custos), and bearing the Arcadian pipe. He was of a gentle disposition, benevolent, affable and moderate. Among his numerous works, oc

casional compositions and eulogies, those already mentioned are all that deserve a high rank in the literature of his country. A biography of him is prefixed to his History of Arcadia (Rome, 1712, 12mo.), by the canon Mancurti of Imola.

CRESPI, Giuseppe Maria, surnamed i Spagnuolo, a painter of the Bolognese school, born at Bologna, in 1665, studied the masterpieces in the monastery of San Michaele in Bosco, and particularly imitated the Caracci, whose works he also copied. He received instruction from Canuti, then from Cignani, afterwards studied in Venice and Parma, and finally came out with his own productions in his native city. His first work was the Combat of Hercules with Antæus. From this time he had continual employment. He painted, for cardinal Ottoboni, the Seven Sacraments, now in the Dresden gallery; several pieces for prince Eugene of Savoy, for the elector of the Palatinate, for the grand-duke of Tuscany, and for cardinal Lambertini, his patron, who afterwards, when pope Benedict XIV, conferred on him the honor of knighthood. Crespi, however, has been frequently censured for the singular ideas which he often introduced into his paintings; e. g. he represents Chiron giving his pupil Achilles a kick for some fault that he had committed. Moreover he painted every thing a prima, with strong, bold strokes, in the manner of Caravaggio, and has become a mannerist from a desire to be constantly new. He had many scholars, among whom were his two sons, Antonio and Luigi Crespi. The latter distinguished himself by his writings on painting. Crespi died in 1747. CRESSY. (See Crecy.)

CREST (from the Latin crista) is used to signify the rising on the defensive armor of the head, also the ornament frequently affixed to the helmet, such as a plume or tuft of feathers, a bunch of horse-hair, &c. Warriors have always been in the habit of adorning their persons; and the helmet, from its conspicuousness, is very naturally chosen as the place of one of the principal ornaments. We learn from Homer (Il. iii, 336) that the crests of the earlier Greeks were of horsehair; afterwards plumes, especially red ones, were adopted. (VIRG. Æn. ix, 50, 271, 808.) To gain an enemy's crest was accounted an honorable achievement, as it was reckoned among the spolia. The Greeks called the crest pálos and λópos ; but some are of opinion that these words mean different things, pálos signifying the raised part of the helmet (conus), and

Xópos, the real crest. The crests of commanders (appipador), of course, were generally larger than those of common soldiers. The Æginetan statues (see Eginetan Style) have crests of horse-hair. In the middle ages, when rank and honors became hereditary, and particular heraldic devices were appropriated to particular families, the crest became a distinguishing hereditary mark of honor. It denotes, in heraldry, a figure placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance, above both helmet and shield; as, for instance, the crest of a bishop is the mitre. The crest is considered a greater criterion of nobility than the armor generally. It is commonly a piece of the arms, as that of Castile is a castle. Crests, therefore, form an important subject in the unimportant science of heraldry.

CRETE. (See Candia.)
CRETICUS. (See Rhythmus.)

CRETINISM makes a very close approach to rickets in its general symptoms. It differs principally in its tendency to that peculiar enlargement of the thyroid gland, which, in France, is denominated goitre, and in the mental imbecility which accompanies it from the first. The enlargement of the gland does not always, however, accompany the other symptoms, though it does generally. Cretinism was first distinctly noticed and described by Plater, about the middle of the 17th century, as occurring among the peasants in Carinthia and the Valais. It was afterwards found, in a still severer degree, in other valleys of Switzerland, and the Alps generally. It has since been detected in various other regions, where the country exhibits similar features, as among a miserable race called Cagots, inhabiting the hollows of the Pyrenees, whose district and history have been described by Mr. Raymond;

and in Chinese Tartary, where it is represented as existing by sir George Staunton. On the first discovery of cretinism, it was ascribed by some to the use of snow-water, and by others to the use of water impregnated with calcareous earth, both which opinions are without foundation. The first is sufficiently disproved by the fact that persons born in places contiguous to the glaciers, and who drink no other water than what flows from the melting of ice and snow, are not subject to this disorder; and, on the contrary, that the disorder is observed in places where snow is unknown. The second is contradicted by the fact, that the common water of Switzerland, instead of being impregnated with calcareous

matter, excels that of most other countries in Europe in purity and flavor. The water usually drank at La Batia and Martigny is from the river Dranse, which flows from the glacier of St. Bernard, and falls into the Rhone. It is remarkably free from earthy matter, and well tasted. At Berne, the water is extremely pure; yet, as Haller remarks, swellings of the throat are not uncommon in both sexes, though cretinism is rare. As comfortable and congenial warmth forms one of the best auxiliaries in attempting the cure of both cretinism and rickets, there can be no doubt that the chill of snow-water must considerably add to the general debility of the system when laboring under either of these diseases, though there seems no reason for supposing that it would give rise to either. It is not difficult to explain why water impregnated with calcareous earth should have been regarded as the cause; for in cretinism, as in rickets, the calcareous earth, designed by nature for the formation of the bones, is often separated, and floats loose in various fluids of the body, for want of a sufficien cy of phosphoric acid to convert it into a phosphate of lime, and give it solidity. And as it is, in consequence, pretty freely discharged in the urine, this seems to have given rise to the opinion that such calcareous earth was introduced into the system with the common water of the lakes or rivers, and thus produced the morbid symptoms. M. de Saussure has assigned the real cause of the disease. The valleys of the Alps, he tells us, are surrounded by very high mountains, sheltered from currents of fresh air, and exposed to the direct, and, what is worse, the reflected rays of the sun. They are marshy, and hence the atmosphere is humid, close and oppressive; and when to these causes we add the meager, innutritious food of the poor of these districts, their indolence and uncleanliness, with a predisposition to the disease, from a hereditary taint of many generations, we can sufficiently account for the prevalence of cretinism in such places, and for the humiliating character which it assumes. The general symptoms of cretinism are the same as those of rickets; but the disease shows itself earlier, often at birth, and not unfrequently before this period, apparently commencing with the procreation of the fœtus, and affording the most evident proofs of ancestral contamination. The child, if not deformed and diseased at birth, soon becomes so; the body is stinted in its growth, and the organs in their developement.

CREUSA; the name of several celebrated females of antiquity. 1. Daughter of Erectheus, who, before she was married to Xuthus, gave birth to Ion, the fruit of an amour with Apollo. To her second husband she bore Achæus. 2. The daughter of Priam and Hecuba, wife to Eneas, and mother of Ascanius. In the tumult of the conflagration of Troy, when Æneas fled with the images of his gods, with his father and son, he lost her, and, after he had sought her a long time in vain, her spirit appeared to him, saying that the mother of the gods had taken her to herself, because she was not willing that she should leave Phrygia.

CREUTZ, Gustavus Philip, count of; a Swedish poet and statesman, was born in Finland in 1726. He was a member of the learned and elegant circle, which surrounded the queen of Sweden, Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederic the Great; and his Atis og Camilla, an erotic poem in five cantos, published at Stockholm (1761), grew out of the meetings of this society. This poem and his Letter to Daphne are considered as masterpieces in Swedish poetry. He was appointed minister to Madrid, and, at a later period, to Paris, where he remained twenty years, and became particularly acquainted with Marmontel and Grétry. April 3, 1783, he signed, with doctor Franklin, a treaty of amity between the United States and Sweden. He was afterwards placed at the head of the department of foreign affairs in Stockholm, but he could not endure the climate of his country, and died in 1785. His works and those of his friend Gyllenborg are published together, under the title Vitterhets Arbeten of Creutz og Gyllenborg, Stockholm, 1795. At a chapter of the Seraphim order, April 28, 1786, king Gustavus himself read the eulogy of Creutz.

CREUZER, George Frederic (in his late publications called simply Frederic), professor at the university of Heidelberg, a philologist and antiquarian, born at Marburg, in Hesse, March 10, 1771, was devoted, from his earliest youth, to the ancient classics. He studied at the universities of Marburg and Jena, and afterwards lived in and near Giessen, occupied with the study of the Greek historians, and at the same time with teaching. About this time, he published his first literary production, Herodotus und Thucydides; Versuch einer näheren Würdigung ihrer Historischen Grundsätze (Essay toward determining the Historical Principles of Herodotus and Thucydides), Leipsic, 1798

and 1803, which was received with approbation, as was also his subsequent publication, De Xenophonte Historico (1799). In 1802, he was made professor of eloquence in the university at Marburg, and, in 1804, professor of philology and ancient history, at Heidelberg. His Dionysus sive Commentationes Academica de Rerum Bacchicarum Originibus (Heidelberg, 1808) may be considered as the first specimen of his views on the connexion of the mythological traditions of the ancient world. According to Creuzer, there existed, in the most ancient times of Greece, a body of Grecian poetry borrowed from the East. Homer, and more particularly Hesiod, instead of being the authors of the religion, or even of the mythology, of their country, merely introduce us to a previously existing world of poetry, philosophy and theology. The most ancient Greek poetry contained the symbolical and even the Magian and allegorical ideas; and though this poetry, which was introduced from the East, changed its forms at different times, it was never substantially lost among the Greeks. It was preserved in the hierarchical institutions and mysteries, and was in later times an object for the investigation of historians and philosophers; but the traces which remain are only sufficient to enable us to determine and describe its most essential features. According to Creuzer, this ancient wisdom was received first from the Pelasgi, who were, if not altogether a ruling tribe of priests, yet a tribe with ruling priests. But exclusive hierarchical institutions could not prosper upon the soil of Greece. The Pelasgi were expelled by the Hellenes. After the ancient races had become extinct, the Hellenic spirit departed more and more from the spirit of the East. Families of priests had united into castes, and what remained of the old and religious poetry was confined to the mysteries. In Homer and Hesiod there are evident traces of a misunderstanding of the elder notions and traditions; yet there are also evidences that they were not ignorant of the ancient theology. The first germ of the more profound theological doctrines can therefore be found only in a revelation from above, to which we must refer the religious belief of different nations, and we must conclude that similar symbols and allegories are founded upon similar primitive views. Creuzer developed these principles in his Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, besonders der Griechen (Leipsic and Darmstadt, 1819