Amber, girls for the haram, as well as costly furs, which the Russians at that time brought for sale to the Wolga, according to Fosslan's account of a journey at the beginning of the 10th century of the Christian era, appear to have been most frequently exchanged for them. Gold, in this commerce, was used only in bars; and, in order to make payments, in their transactions, with greater facility, or in order to have a medium of exchange for things of little value, the coins were broken, of which we have abundant evidence. By accurate investigations in the countries where this money is found, the diligence and learning of the Orientalists Adler, Reiske, Ol. Tychsen, Silv. de Sacy, Hallenberg, Malmström, Rasmussen, Frähn, Castiglioni (who has published a valuable work upon the Cufic coins of the imperial museum at Milan), Münter and Th. Tychsen, have succeeded in arranging a tolerably perfect series of the several dynasties. Th. Tychsen's treatise De Defectibus Rei Numaria Muhammedanor. (in the 5th volume of the Comment. Soc. Gott. recentior.), will enable the student to understand the deficiences of this science. Frähn, of Petersburg, now counsellor of state (author of a commentary upon the cabinet of the Mohammedan coins in the Asiatic museum at Petersburg), has been reputed to be the most thorough judge of this department, having had at his disposal the collections of the imperial academy, as well as those of private individuals, much exceeding in richness any to be found elsewhere. In connexion with these coins are to be considered the small pieces of glass, which were introduced, particularly in Sicily, under the dominion of the Mohammedans, instead of money, or, perhaps, under the sanction of public authority, obtained currency as standards of the weight of coins. Among Cufic coins, those are particularly sought for which bear images, because the forms represented upon them appear to be opposed to the precepts of the Koran. But their commerce with the Greeks may, at first, have made the engravers of the Mohammedan coins less strict; and, in the course of time, they ventured to give them figures agreeable to the peculiarities of the Oriental taste; in doing which, they were aided by the armorial bearings (tamghas) of the princes of the Turkish family. Finally, they marked them with zodiacal and planetary figures, to which they attributed the power of amulets. (This reminds us of the renowned Nurmahalrupees.) The original use of these coins is

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made still more manifest from inscriptions in many languages; even Russian-Arabic coins are found in rich cabinets. Every day adds to our information in this department. Ol. Tychsen's Introductio in Rem Numar. Muhammedanor. (Rost., 1794), has, therefore, ceased to be complete. The abbé Reinaud, in the Journal Asiatique (1823), has communicated many excellent observations concerning the study of Arabic coins. A work by him, concerning this branch of numismatics, with a historical explanation of the coins in the cabinet of the duke of Blacas, and in the royal French collections, has also appeared.

CUIRASS; an article of defensive armor, protecting the body both before and behind. Meyrick, in his dissertation on ancient armor, has thus distinguished the cuirasses of different nations:-1. Leathern, with a belt of the same material, worn by the Medes and Persians, before the reign of Cyrus the Great. 2. Plumated or scaled lorica of steel, of which the forepart covered the breast, the front of the thighs, and foreparts of the hands and legs; the posterior part, the back, neck, and whole of the head; both parts being united by fibula on the sides: these belonged to the Parthian cavalry. 3. Scales made of horses' hoofs, sewed together with the sinews of oxen, were worn by the Sarmatians. 4. The purpa, padded with wool, covered with flat rings or square pieces of brass, fastened at the sides, and cut round at the loins; the woak, or gorget; the (worno, or girdle, to which was appended the (wa, a kind of petticoat,belonged to the Homeric chiefs. 5. The Etruscans wore plain, scaled, laminated, ringed or quilted cuishes, with straps depending from them, either of leather solely, or plated with metal; and these straps, as well as the cuirasses, were adopted by the Romans, who termed them lorica. On the Trajan column, the lorica of the hastati and principes (the two first ranks) consist of several metal bands wrapped half round the body, and fastened before and behind, over a leathern, or quilted tunic. Sometimes the Roman cuirass was enriched with embossed figures. The lorice of the triarii (the third rank) were of leather only. Domitian, according to Martial, adopted the Sarmatian cuirass, which he made of the hoofs of boars. The Roman cavalry of the early period did not wear lorica; but even before the cataphractes of Constantine (who wore flexible armor of scales and plates and rings, held together by hooks and chains, the lorica hamata of Virgil-Loricam con

sertam hamis auroque trilicem, Æn. iii. 467), we read of horsemen who were loricati. Among the moderns, the AngloSaxons wore leathern cuirasses (corieta), which, towards the end of the 9th century, were formed of hides fitted close to the body, and jagged or cut into the shape of leaves below. The leathern cuirass, covered with rings, was appropriated to the blood royal, or chiefs of high rank: it was borrowed from the Gauls, and called mael, whence our coat of mail. The cuirass appears to have been disused in England in the time of Charles II, when bulletproof silk was introduced. The lance having, of late years, again become an offensive weapon, the cuirass has been revived among the European cavalry. The finest part of Napoleon's cavalry were cuirassiers; and the weight of these heavily-armed soldiers gave great momentum to their charge. The cuirass leaves many vulnerable parts exposed, but, as it protects almost all the trunk, it materially diminishes the chance of wounds, and gives confidence to the soldier.

CUJAS, Jacques, or CUJACIUS; son of Cujaus, a tanner in Toulouse; born in 1520. While yet a student of law under Arnould Ferrier, he attracted attention by his industry and talents. After having delivered private lectures at Toulouse, he received an invitation to be professor of law at Cahors in 1554; but he had been there only a year, when Margaret de Valois invited him, through her chancellor l'Hopital, to Bourges, where he lectured till 1567. He then went to Valence, and gave great reputation to the university of that place by his instructions. On account of the civil commotions in France, he returned to Bourges in 1575, and remained there, after a short stay at Paris, as teacher of the law, notwithstanding the most advantageous invitations to Bologna. Cujas owed his great reputation to his profound study of the original works on the Roman law, of which he had collected more than 500 manuscripts. The corrections which he made in ancient works on the law (to say nothing of a great many Greek and Latin works on other subjects) were remarkable for number and acuteness. In fact, he may be considered as the founder of scientific jurisprudence. He made himself popular, also, by the interest which he took in the personal fortunes of his disciples, by his prudence in regard to the theological quarrels of his time (Nihil hoc ad edictum prætoris was his maxim), and his faithful adherence to the cause of Henry IV. His grief for the

afflictions of his country is said to have accelerated his death (Oct. 4, 1590). He was in the habit of studying and writing lying on the ground. The booksellers at Lyons purchased his manuscripts for waste paper. The edition of his works, which he published himself in 1577, is correct, but incomplete; that by Fabrot (Paris, 1658, 10 vols. folio) is complete. The Promptuarium Operum lac. Cujacii, auctore Dom. Albunensi (Naples, 1763, 2 vols. folio), is of great assistance in the study of this collection. His children by two marriages acquired a sort of celebrity by their immorality. (See Cujas and his Contemporaries, by E. Spangenberg.)

CULDEES; a religious order, which, at one period, had considerable establishments in almost every part of Great Britain and Ireland. The name is of uncertain etymology; some derive it from the Latin cultor Dei (a worshipper of God), while others think they discover its origin in the Gaelic kyldee (from cylle, a cell, and dee, a house), a building composed of cells. The history of the Culdees has acquired a factitious importance in the quarrels of the Episcopalians and Presbyterians; the latter asserting that they were of very great antiquity, and were Presbyterians in their ecclesiastical policy; the former maintaining that neither of these positions is correct, that there is no mention of them in the early British writers, but that they are first spoken of subsequent to the year 854, and that they then appear in the attitude of maintaining their right to confirm the election of the bishops of the several sees where they had establishments. Their origin is, by some, attributed to St. Columba, in the middle of the 6th century. After having exercised a great influence throughout the country, they are said to have been overthrown by the increase of the papal power, and the institution of monasteries more congenial to the aspiring views of the see of Rome.

CULLEN (William), a celebrated physician and medical writer, was born in the county of Lanark, in Scotland, in 1712. He was apprenticed to a surgeon and apothecary at Glasgow, after which he made some voyages to the West Indies as surgeon to a merchant vessel. He subsequently settled as a medical practitioner at Hamilton, where he formed a partnership with William Hunter, who afterwards became so distinguished. The object of their connexion was not so much present emolument as professional improvement. Each, therefore, in turn, was allowed to

attend metropolitan lectures, whilst the other prosecuted the business for their joint benefit. In 1740, Cullen took the degree of M. D., and, settling at Glasgow, he was, in 1746, appointed lecturer on chemistry at the university there. In 1751, he was chosen regius professor of medicine. In 1756, he was invited to take the chemical professorship in the university of Edinburgh. In 1760, he was made lecturer on the materia medica there, and subsequently resigned the chemical chair to his pupil, doctor Black. From 1766 to 1773, he gave, alternately with doctor Gregory, annual courses of lectures on the theory and practice of physic-an arrangement which continued till the death of doctor Gregory, in 1773, left his rival in complete possession of the medical chair. As a lecturer on medicine, doctor Cullen exercised a great influence over the state of opinion relative to the mystery of that science. He successfully combated the specious doctrines of Boerhaave, depending on the humoral pathology; though he has not been equally successful in establishing his own system, which is founded on an enlarged view of the principles of Frederic Hoffmann. His death took place Feb. 5, 1790. His principal works are Lectures on the Materia Medica; Synopsis Nosologia Practice; and First Lines of the Practice of Physic, which must be considered as his magnum opus, and which, amidst all the recent fluctuations of opinion on medical theory, has retained its value.

CULLODEN MUIR; a heath in Scotland, 4 miles east of Inverness. It is celebrated for a victory obtained in the year 1746, by the duke of Cumberland, over the partisans of the house of Stuart. The battle of Culloden was the last battle fought on British soil, and the termination of the attempts of the Stuart family to recover the throne of England. (See Edward, Charles, Great Britain, and James III.) The son of James III, Charles Edward, in his daring expedition in 1745, had contended, with various success, against the English, and, indeed, was at one time only about 100 miles from London, where terror and consternation prevailed. But, by a combination of unfavorable circumstances, he was compelled to retreat to Scotland, where fortune again seemed to smile on him at the battle of Falkirk. But the duke of Cumberland, marching against him, baffled the whole enterprise by the decisive victory of Culloden, April 27 (16th, O. S.), 1746. Edward's army was deficient in subordination. Though his

troops were faint with fatigue and hunger when the battle began, they fought with spirit. The impetuous bravery of the Highlanders, however, at length_yielded to the well-served artillery of the English. The victors massacred the wounded Scots on the field of battle. Charles Edward was exposed, in his flight, to a thousand dangers, but at length escaped. His followers suffered the vengeance of the victors. The most distinguished of them died on the scaffold, and the districts which had been the theatre of the rebellion were laid waste. The English government henceforward took measures to prevent the recurrence of similar attempts. Finding that the attachment of the Highlanders to the old royal line arose principally from the peculiarity of their customs and mode of life, they resolved to abolish their institutions. Since that period, the primitive Scottish manners and usages have been continually dwindling away and disappearing.

CULM; a village in Bohemia, 3 leagues east of the well-known watering-place of Teplitz, and near the frontier of Saxony; famous on account of the battle of Aug. 30, 1813, in which the French, under Vandamme, were beaten by the Prussians and Russians. Vandamme was taken prisoner, with 3 generals and 10,000 men. The battle was one of the bloodiest in the whole war. The allies had, a few days previous (Aug. 26), been repulsed by Napoleon in their attack on Dresden. On the 29th, a bloody battle took place between Vandamme and the allies, who defended the frontiers of Bohemia, to cover the retreat of the Russians. The night put an end to the battle. On the 30th, it was renewed with fury, and ended with the victory of Culm. This victory was decisive; for the allies were enabled to save Bohemia, on which Napoleon was pressing with all his might. A few days before (Aug. 26), on the same day with the battle at Dresden, the French had been beaten by Blücher on the Katzbach; and from this time, the series of disasters is to be dated, which ended with the dethronement of the French emperor.

CULMINATION, in astronomy; the passing of a star through the meridian, because it has at that moment reached the highest point (culmen) of its path, with reference to the observer. Hence culmination is used, metaphorically, for the condition of any person or thing arrived at the most brilliant or important point of its progress.

CUMA, or CYME; the largest and most important city of Æolis (Asia Minor), and,

and, his patron being made lord-lieutenant of Ireland, he accompanied him to that kingdom. When lord Halifax became secretary of state, he procured nothing better for Cumberland than the clerkship of reports in the office of trade and plantations. In the course of the next two or three years, he wrote an opera, entitled the Summer's Tale, and his comedy of the Brothers. His West Indian, which was brought out by Garrick in 1771, proved eminently successful. The Fashionable Lover not obtaining the success of the West Indian, he exhibited that soreness of character which exposed him to the satire of Sheridan, in his sketch of Sir Fretful Plagiary, and which induced Garrick to call him the man without a skin. The Choleric Man, the Note of Hand, and the Battle of Hastings, were his next productions. On the accession of lord George Germaine to office, he was made secretary to the board of trade. In 1780, he was employed on a confidential mission to the courts of Lisbon and Madrid, which, owing to some dissatisfaction on the part of the ministry, involved him in great distress, as they withheld the reimbursement of his expenses to the amount of £5000, which rendered it necessary for him to dispose of the whole of his hereditary property. To add to his misfortune, the board of trade was broken up, and he retired with a very inadequate pension, and devoted himself entirely to literature. The first works which he published, after his return from Spain, were his entertaining Anecdotes of Spanish Painters, and the most distinguished of his collection of essays, entitled the Observer. To these may be added the novels of Arundel, Henry, and John de Lancaster, the poem of Calvary, the Exodiad (in conjunction with sir James Bland Burgess), and, lastly, a poem called Retrospection, and the Memoirs of his own Life. He also edited the London Review, in which the critics gave their names, and which soon expired. His latter days were chiefly spent in London, where he died, May 7, 1811. The comic drama was his forte; and, although he wrote much, even of comedy, that was very indifferent, the merit of the West Indian, the Fashionable Lover, the Jew, and the Wheel of Fortune, is of no common description. His Observer, since his acknowledgment of his obligations to doctor Bentley's manuscripts, no longer supports his reputation as a Greek critic; and as a poet, he was never more than a versifier.

CUMBERLAND; a post-town, and capital

of Alleghany county, Maryland, on the Potomac, at the junction of Will's creek, 70 miles W. Hagerstown, 130 E. S. E. Wheeling, 150 W. by N. Baltimore. It is a considerable town, and contains a courthouse, a jail, a market-house, a bank, and four houses of public worship—one for Lutherans, one for Roman Catholics, one for Methodists, and one built jointly by the Presbyterians and Episcopalians. The mountains in the vicinity abound in stonecoal, great quantities of which are transported down the Potomac in flat and keel boats. The Cumberland or Great Western road extends from this town to the banks of the Ohio at Wheeling. It was made by the government of the U. States, at the expense of $1,800,000; and a survey has been made from thence to the Mississippi, 600 miles farther.

see.

CUMBERLAND MOUNTAINS, in Tennes

The range commences in the S. W. part of Pennsylvania, and, in Virginia, it takes the name of Laurel mountain, passes through the S. E. part of Kentucky, and terminates in Tennessee, 80 miles S. E. Nashville. A considerable portion of this mountain in Tennessee is composed of stupendous piles of craggy rocks. It is thinly covered with trees, and has springs impregnated with alum. Lime-stone is found on both sides of it.

CUMBERLAND; a river which rises in the Cumberland mountains, Virginia, and runs through Kentucky and Tennessee into the Ohio, 60 miles from the Mississippi. It is navigable for steam-boats to Nashville, near 200 miles, and for boats of 15 tons, 300 miles farther. At certain seasons, vessels of 400 tons may descend 400 miles, to the Ohio.

CUMMAZEE, or COOMASSIE; a town of Africa, capital of Ashantee; 120 miles N. N. W. Cape Coast Castle; lon. 2°6′ W.; lat. 6° 30′ N.: population estimated by Mr. Bowdich, in 1818, at 15,000; stated by the inhabitants at 100,000. It is situated in a vale, surrounded by an unbroken mass of the deepest verdure. Four of the principal streets are half a mile long, and from 50 to 100 yards broad. The houses are low and small, of a square or oblong form, composed of canes wattled together, and plastered with clay and sand. The town has considerable trade. The king's harem is said to contain 3333 women!

CUNDINAMARCA; the northern part of New Grenada. It forms a department of the republic of Colombia, and comprehends the provinces of Bogotá, Antioquia, Mariquita and Neiva, with 371,000 inhabitants. The chief place is Santa Fe de Bogotá.