ing the Greek and Latin churches, became the subject-matter of conversation throughout most parts of the Christian world. But the differences between the pope and the council had not those mischievous consequences that were feared; nor was the reunion of the churches attended with the expected or desired success.

Among many other remarkable events, the opposition made in several parts of Germany, to the er rors and enormities of the church of Rome had this tendency, that it put men upon searching the scriptures and traditions; and it obliged the prelates to put on the appearance of stimulating their clergy to wards the reformation of abuses, so generally, and so justly complained of; as also to make many regulations in the discipline of the church; and none of the European churches were more forward in promoting this undertaking than those of France. The king of France published a declaration, wherein he prohibited his subjects from paying any obedience to the popes in temporal matters, and seized for his own use, all the first-fruits and tenths, which was a fatal blow at the root of the papal power. At this time three popes had been elected, who all pretended a right to infallibility; and each thundered out their anathemas against the others; but the French clergy, with the assistance of their king, stood their ground; for although they acknowledged one of the popes, yet to their everlasting honour, they refused to pay any regard to his dictates in things of a temporal nature.

It was in the beginning of this century, that the famous council of Constance was held in the city of that name; and the reason for its being called was, to put an end to the schism which had broke out in the church, by the election of three popes at one time. John XXIII. one of these popes, fled from the vengeance of the council, but being brought back and placed at the bar, he calmly submitted to resign all his pretensions to the tripple

crown.

The two others who were competitors with him, viz. Gregory XII. and Benedict XI. were deposed, and Martin V. was elected by the general council; who in this single instance, had the courage to act in the room of the cardinals.

The people in general entertained great hopes that the council would have reformed many of the abuses that had crept into the church; but in this they were much deceived, for instead of restoring discipline to its original purity, they spent much of their time in condemning those whom they called heretics. John Huss, and Jerome of Prague, were both condemned and executed, and the sentiments

of the great Wickliffe were likewise condemned many years after he was dead. Nay, to the eternal disgrace of this council, it was ordered, that the bones of Wickliffe should be dug out of the grave, where they had been deposited thirty years before, and reduced to ashes. Upon this act of clerical power, the judicious Rapin makes the following reflection: "His ashes were thrown into the brook which runs through the town of Lutterworth; the brook conveyed the ashes to the Severn, and the Severn to the sea." In the same manner his doctrines spread so far, that the papal power in England was easily abolished

It seems to have been in this century, that the popes thought their power fully established, and probably it might have been so, had it not been for the noble stand made against their encroachments; by the kings and clergy of France. In a council held at Basil, 1445, there were upwards of forty. constitutions made with respect to ecclesiastical discipline, one of which prohibited the people from giving new names to the virgin Mary; such as our Lady of Consolation; our Lady of Grace; and our Lady of Pity. There were several other ordinances, such as a prohibition against carrying through the streets the relics of saints, in order to get money; and clandestine marriages were likewise prohibited.

In France, Charles VI. a weak, though wellmeaning prince, not willing to do any thing without the consent of his people, called an assembly of the clergy, to consider of the papal decrees. The determination of the council was, that the popes were not infallible, but that they were subject to general councils, to whom they were obliged to give an account of their conduct. But this strenuous attempt to support liberty in matters of an ecclesiastical nature, served only to stimulate the court of Rome towards making new innovations. It was at this time, that bishops were first permitted to sell their livings and retire to other parts of the world, which they found much more to their advantage. The popes received a gratuity for the resignation, and nominal Christianity now became a trade.

them, and this was done under pretence of rebuilding the church of St. Peter's at Rome. Learning, however, was now beginning to lift up her head, popish ignorance began to vanish before the glori

ous light of the truth; and Luther, that bright star of the reformation, burst forth amidst the night of popish darkness: but with respect to him we must speak more largely hereafter.

W

E come now, in the second place, to consider the different orders in the church of Rome, and as this is, in all respects, consistent with the plan we have laid down, so we shall attend to historical matter of fact with the strictest fidelity. It is impossible to describe the different rules and ceremonies of religion, without making the reader acquainted with those sects to whom they belong; for should we do otherwise, we should, to use the words of the ingenious Dr. Watts, present our readers only with skeletons. All these ceremonies will naturally come before us, and be presented to our readers; and therefore before we go any further, we shall present them with an account of the rise and progress of the monastic life.

The word monk, signifies the same as a solitary, or one who lives sequestered from the company and conversation of the rest of the world; and is usually applied to those Christian men who dedicate themselves wholly to the service of religion, in some monastery. Those of the female sex, who devote themselves in like manner to a religious life, are called nuns, and of these are many different orders. There is some difference in the sentiments of learned men concerning the original and rise of the monastic life; but the most probable account of this matter seems to be as follows:

In the Decian persecution, which was about the middle of the third century, many persons in Egypt, to avoid the fury of the storm, fied to the neighbouring deserts and mountains, where they not only found a safe retreat, but also more time and liberty to exercise themselves in acts of piety and divine contemplations; which sort of life became so agreeable to them, that, when the persecution was over, they refused to return to their habitations again, chusing rather to continue in those cottages and cells, which they had made for themselves in the wilderness.

The first and most noted of these solitaries were, Paul and Anthony, two famous Egyptians, whom therefore St. Jerom calls the fathers of the Christian hermits; for as yet, there was no bodies or communities of men, embracing this life, nor any monasteries built; but only a few single persons scattered here and there in the deserts of Egypt; till Pachomius, in the peaceable reign of Constantine, procured some monasteries to be built in Thebais in Egypt; from whence the custom of living in societies was followed by degrees, in other parts of the world, in succeeding ages.

Till the year 250, there were no monks in the church : and from that time to the reign of Constantine, monachism was confined to the hermits, or anchorets, living in private cells in the wilderness. But when Pachomius had erected monasteries in Egypt, other countries presently followed the example, and so the monastic life came to its full maturity in the church. Hilarion, a disciple of Anthony, was the first monk in Palestine or Syria; and not long after, Eustathius, bishop of Sebastia, brought monachism into Armenia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. Athana-sius, about the year 340, taught the anchorets of Italy and Rome to live in societies; but it was some time after this, that Martin, bishop of Tours, fixed his cell in France, and gave birth to the monastic life in that kingdom; from whence, some learned men think, it was brought by Pelagius into Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century,

The antient monks were not, like the modern, distinguished into orders, and denominated from the founders of them; but they had their names from the places they inhabited.

All monks were, originally, no more than laymen: nor could they well be otherwise, being confined by their own rules to some desert or wilderness, where there could be no room for the exercise of the clerical

functions,

lation and settlement of the monks of Tabennus there, called the isle of repentance. The next spiritual exercise was, extraordinary fasting. The Egyptian monks kept every day a fast till three in the afternoon, excepting Saturdays, Sundays, and the fifty days of Pentecost. Some exercised themselves with great austerities, fasting two, three, four, or five days together; but this practice was not generally approved. They did not think such excessive abstinence of any use, but rather a disservice to religion; for Pachomius's rule, which was supposed to be given him by an angel, permitted every man to eat, drink, and labour according to his bodily strength. So that fasting was a discretionary thing, and matter of choice, not compulsion. In some places, they had the scriptures read during their meals at table. This custom was first brought into the monasteries of Cappadocia, to prevent idle discourse and idle contentions. But in Egypt they had no occasion for this remedy; for they were taught to eat their meat in silence. Palladius mentions one instance more of their devotion, which was only occasional; namely their psalmody at the reception of any brethren, or conducting them with singing of psalms to their habitation.

The laws did not allow monks to interest themselves in any affairs, either ecclesiastical or civil; and those who were called to any employment in the church, were obliged to quit their monastery thereupon. Nor were they permitted to encroach upon the duties, or rights and privileges of the secular clergy.

By the laws of their first institution, in all parts of the east, their habitation was not to be in cities, or places of public concourse, but in deserts and private retirements, as their very name implied. The famous monk Anthony used to say, that the wilderness was as natural to a monk as water to a fish; and therefore a monk in a city was quite out of his element, like a fish upon dry land.

As the monks of the ancient church were under no solemn vow or profession, they were at liberty to betake themselves to a secular life again. Julian himself was once in the monastic habit; and the same is observed of Constans, the son of Constantine, who usurped the empire in Britain. The rule of Pachomius, by which the Egyptian monks were governed, has nothing of any vow at their entrance, nor any punishment for such as deserted their station afterwards.

In process of time, it was thought proper to inflict some punishment; which was, that if they were possessed of any substance, it should be all forfeited to the monastery which they had deserted.

The monastic life soon made a very great progress all over the Christian world; for Rufinus, who travelled through the cast in 373, assures us, there were almost as many monks in the desarts, as inhabitants in the cities. From the wilderness it made its way into the towns and cities, where it multiplied greatly: for the same author informs us, that in the single city of Oxirinca, there were more monasteries than houses, and above thirty thousand religious.

Having said thus much concerning the institution of the monastic orders, we shall now begin to present the reader with an accurate account of them, both as they have been in former times, and as they are at present.

The most ancient, so far as we can judge of the religious orders in the Roman church, are the Augustine monks, who have made a great figure in the world, and are still held in high repute.

Austin, or as he is sometimes called, St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo in Africa, about the latter end of the fourth century, had been brought up by Christian parents; his father being a centurion in one of the Roman legions, and his mother a very pious woman. But notwithstanding all the care which had been taken of his education, yet he had scarce left the schools, when he joined himself to those worst of all heretics, the Manicheans. As he had great natural parts, improved by a fine education, he was much followed as a public teacher of oratory, but it pleased God to convince him of his errors, and in the thirty-sixth year of his age he became a sincere Christian. Soon after this remarkable event, he went over to Africa, and was ordained bishop of Hippo, where, in many respects, he became an eminent instance of the power of divine grace; only that in some things he was too superstitious.

At that time, the monastic life was much in vogue, and Austin having many presbyters under him, they agreed to build a sort of convent or cloyster near the church, where they spent most of their leisure hours in devotion, in explaining the sacred scriptures, and in making each other acquainted with the different principles contained in the body of divinity; for at that time disputed points were much regarded and much taught.

These presbyters, however, were not bound down by any oaths or vows; they loved their situation, because they thought it was acceptable to God, while they were endeavouring to mortify their worldly lusts, and prepare themselves for heaven! But as things took a very different turn afterwards, and those societies of men which had been formed,

as

as it were, originally from motives of necessity and utility, were greedily laid hold of by the Roman pontiffs, to establish fixed and standing orders upon them, making use of their names, and sheltering their pretensions to piety, under the mask of real and genuine religion. For this reason we.find, that in the thirteenth century, many religious orders sprung up in the church; and pope Alexander the IV. in the year 1256, availing himself of that circumstance, in order to aggrandize the papal power, reduced three or four of these orders into one, and called them by the general name of Augustine hermits.

At present, these monks are divided into several different classes, but their rules and orders are much the same. They have all things in common, and the rich who enter into the order, are to sell their possessions, and give the money to the poor; that is, they are to give it to the monks their brethren. They are not to receive any alms, without delivering the whole up to their superiors; and if it should happen that a persecution arise, then they are to betake themselves immediately to the place where their superior has withdrawn himself. They are to employ the first part of the morning in labouring with their hands, and the rest of the day in reading and devotion. They have Saturdays allowed to provide themselves in necessaries, and on Sundays they are permitted to drink wine; and when they go abroad, they must always go two in a company; nor are they ever to eat, but in their monastery, let

the calls of nature be ever so urgent. They are forbidden to harbour the least thoughts of women, nor are they permitted to receive any letters or presents without communicating them to their superiors. These orders are read over to them in the consistory once every week, and cach of the young ones has a copy of them delivered to them. Their habit is black, and the nuns of the same order are bound down to rules of a similar nature.

Benedictine monks are another very ancient order in the church of Rome, and they took their rise during the reign of the emperor Justinian, about the year 530. Their founder was one Benedict, a famous Italian monk, who established twelve monasteries in the diocese of Tibur; and these acquired so much repute, that they were exempted from episcopal jurisdiction. From this place he removed to Mount Cassino, where he established another monastery, and sent out his disciples into every part of the Chiristian world. During the space of six hundred years they became so famous, that they had almost all the religious houses to themselves, till the Dominicans and Franciscans started up to share

with them a little of their fame. These monks wear a loose black gown with large wide sleeves, and a capuchin on their heads, with a peak at the end. Like most of the other orders in the Romish church, they are divided into many classes; but in general their rules are the following:

They are obliged to perform their devotions seven times in twenty-four hours. First, at two o'clock in the morning, because our Saviour is said to have risen from the dead at that time. Secondly, at six o'clock in the morning, because our Saviour is said to have appeared to the women at that time. Thirdly, at nine in the morning, at which time it is supposed Pilate ordered our Saviour to be scourged. Fourthly, at noon, at which time it is generally allowed our Saviour was crucified. Fifthly, at three. o'clock in the afternoon, when our Saviour expired on the cross. Sixthly, at six in the afternoon, when they supposed our Lord to be taken down from the cross. Lastly, at seven in the evening, the time when they suppose our Saviour's agony began.. Thus all their seven hours of devotion, taking in the subsequent first, and afterwards the antecedent have a relation to our Saviour's sufferings

These monks are obliged to go always two and two together, and in lent they must fast till six in the evening; but they are not to subject themselves to any wilful austerities, or rigorous penances, without leave from their superiors. They never converse together at meals, but attend to the reading of the scripture, they lay all in one chamber, though only one in a bed, and even in bed they keep their cloathes on. cloathes on. For small faults they are shut out from meals, and for greater ones they are denied admittance to the chapel. Incorrigible offenders are excluded from the monastery, nor can they ever be again re-admitted, but upon giving proots of the most

sincere repentance. The furniture of each of their beds is a mat, a rug, a blanket, and a pillow, and each monk is obliged to have two coats, two bowls, a table book, a knife, a needle, and a handkerchief. It must be acknowledged, however, that the monks of this order have been a great ornament to the literary

world.

At St. Maur, in France, where they have a famous monastery, they have published the best editions of the works of the fathers, with judicious remarks, and critical observations. Many of them are not friends to superstition but long carnestly to unite Christians together in brotherly love and charity. This is much to their honour, and if they go on in the same line of moderation, much good may be expected from them.

The