expected points. All the effects in chess chess-player may be so deficient that he are certain. Within the limits of the pos- would be a nonentity instead of a great sible moves the effects are as definite as general at the head of an army. There is the moves, and all that is needed is a ă real analogy between the two kinds of strong and accurate conception of the powers, only it goes a very little way. further moves which then become possi- Thus, a bad chess-player will often fail to ble, and of the new combinations to which see that he is using a piece for two disthey give rise. A man who could in his tinct purposes which can only be really mind fill at most thirty-two out of sixty-used for one of them,- for instance, that four squares of tesselated pavement with thirty-two or fewer distinct figures, and carry in his head how each of them would stand in reference to all the others after any one was moved to a different square, would become, as soon as he knew the moves and rules, a first-rate chess-player, and would, in all probability, possess already a very unusual and first-rate power of constructing geometrical figures vividly, though not by any means necessarily of solving geometric problems. There is no greater delusion than the notion that chess is a game which calls the reasoning powers strongly into play. It is a strain not on the powers of reasoning, but on the power of distinctly imagining space. To plan an ambush at chess is not to catch your opponent in a spot where your good sense tells you that he is unable to defend himself, but to discern a move which he, from imperfect powers of constructing the game, is likely to make, without foreseeing the disastrous character of its consequences.

There is no calculation of probabilities in chess, unless you speculate, which is always bad play, on the weakness of your opponent, and make a move the effect of which ought to be injurious to you, but by which, if he misses the right reply to it, you will gain a great advantage. In the true play there is no discipline of judgment at all, and no more reasoning than is implied in assuming that if your opponent sees an advantage he will take it, and that you can't have a piece at two places at the same time. These, no doubt, are, strictly speaking, acts of reasoning, but they are very simple ones, of which every man not an idiot is capable. The whole charm and mystery of the game lie not in the least in the exercise of the understanding, but in the exercise of the space-imagination, -a faculty, no doubt, useful in war, but only one of the elements in true strategy. On the one hand, the power of a really great chess-player is in relation to a particular class of imaginative efforts far beyond the power of even very great generals. On the other hand, in fifty other exercises of imaginative power, all needful for a good strategist, the great

he is using a pawn which is needed to cover his king from check to protect another piece, though in case that other piece were taken, the pawn could not be moved away from its actual position to revenge the loss; and a bad strategist might make a corresponding mistake and suffer for it. But the quickness of eye which would discern at once the blunder in such a double use of a military force for two distinct purposes, both of them essential to safety, yet not compatible with each other, would go a very little way indeed towards making a good strategist. A good strategist must have the power of constructing in his imagination all the physical features of the country, especially the roads, out of the hints furnished by a map,—which implies imaginative power of a very much more complicated kind, though not of so unusual a degree as the powers of a great chess-player. He must have a very exact sense of the time requisite for the operations of war, and of the physical and moral expedients by which that time may be reduced; and he must, in addition, be able to conceive graphically the physical and moral capacity of his own forces, and those of his adversaries, and to stimulate his own to the utmost. All these powers imply a very much wider range of imagination, though probably not near so much intensity in particular exercises of it, as the powers of a first-rate chess-player. Indeed, the former bear to the latter the relation which the power of conceiving minutely the ground-plan and elevation of a house bears to the power of reconstructing in imagination, though not necessarily so accurately, its whole interior with all the available resources for living and enjoyment which it contains. But there is a real foundation, however slight, for the notion that the powers of a great chess-player bear some analogy to the powers of a great strategist. At the basis of both stands the power of promptly grasping the various space-relations of a limited area, and of varying in the mind's eye the positions occupied by different pieces on that area. Without a tolerably high degree of this power, you would not get either a great chess-player or a

former and not the latter.

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ing it; and that can only be properly displayed in playing with a present adversary, and not playing very slowly either.

From The Saturday Review. SPELLING.

great strategist; though it is quite true | ably the highest chess-imagination which that with it alone, you would get only the the world ever knew would be compatible, and has been compatible, we take it, with For this notion, then, that there is really extreme imbecility, even of the imaginaa kind of strategy in chess, there is a sound tive kind, in dealing with the affairs of basis. But there is no such excuse for life or the characters of men. And as for the vague popular notion that great powers the power required to play a good game of of chess-playing imply the sort of craft chess, with ample time for each move, necessary for statesmanship. As a matter and full leisure to work out its effect on a of fact, the truly wonderful chess-players of board, it really is not remarkable at all. the world have very seldom been remark- The only remarkable power displayed in able for anything else. We think we have chess is the power of anticipating or imaginshown that they ought to have had at leasting the exact state of the board without seethe imaginative qualities of good geometricians, but we are not aware that they often have made great geometricians, and probably they would not have been likely to do so without unusual reasoning powers as well, which chess does not either require or educate. Certainly, while there are plenty of instances of great politicians and great statesmen delighting in deep gambling, we cannot recall one who was THE amusement called a "spelling-bee " known as a first-rate chess-player. Peo- has the advantage of being cheap and ple are deceived by words. They hear of easily got up, and it may be useful in helpa brilliant combination" in chess and of ing to shake off the common aversion of a "brilliant combination" in politics, and Englishmen to opening their mouths in they think there is some analogy between public. Almost the only objection is the two. But look at what you really that, unless tolerably big words are used mean, and you will find that a brilliant among fairly educated people as tests, combination in chess, is nothing in the there cannot be much risk of failure, and world but a power of so anticipating people who find that they can spell big moves, and the effects of moves, as to words correctly, may be too apt to make bring a good many pieces to act on the familiar use of them. The notion, howsame square-i.e., either on the same ever, that correct spelling is to be expiece or else on the pieces which support pected from those who have had ordinary it. But in politics a brilliant combination opportunities of education is modern, and means something entirely different; it it would be easy to attach too much immeans a brilliant insight into character, a portance to the want of it. The Duke of clear perception of the sort of moral influ- Marlborough's letters are always quoted ence which will carry this point, and the as an example of the deficiency of a resort which will carry that, and a power of markably able man in knowledge which is marshalling all the influences needed so as now required in every schoolboy. But it to bring them to bear simultaneously on the must be remembered that even in the podifferent persons whose consent is wanted lite age of Queen Anne people wrote far to any policy. Consider this sort of fac- less than they do now, and as long as ulty closely, and you will find that it has not words are used chiefly in conversation it necessarily any single element in common is difficult to say precisely what is right with the power of producing what are and wrong. There are indeed, and for a called "brilliant combinations" at chess. long time past have been, certain books Indeed, though the play of a great chess- of which one would be ashamed to conplayer is a very high and intense exercise fess ignorance, and which could not be of the imagination, it is an exercise of im- read attentively without learning to spell agination of a very thin kind indeed, which as many words as would serve the ordineed not imply any considerable imaginary purposes of life. As an indication native grasp of the realities of life. The of want of knowledge or of interest about man who has the most vivid geographical such books incorrect spelling might reaconceptions may have the most pallid of moral and practical conceptions. Indeed, the imagination useful in chess need not be useful at all in politics or diplomacy, and very rarely indeed would be. Prob

sonably be thought disgraceful. But if the failure only occurred in polysyllabic words, we should be disposed to view leniently an indication of imperfect study of certain newspapers. We have before

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us a provincial journal which, in describ-writer of forty years ago gives us another ing a spelling-bee, states that "it was dis- example, allege " and "alledge," but covered that an individual had escaped an usage has now determined against the lat interrogatory by changing his seat." It ter form. The dispute between "inquire would have been difficult for the writer, and "enquire" is not yet settled, nor who had probably been at the trial him- could we say that "connection" is wrong, self, to consent to say that "it was found although we should write "connexion." that a person had escaped a question." It appears that at the "spelling-bee" the Long words are like fine clothes. If we word ecstatic was deemed to be wrongly have them, why should we not make use spelt with "x," but this was usual in the of them? We do not know the precise last century. If the competitors were meaning of "bee," but if we conjecture taken from the working class, we should rightly, we shall expect soon to hear that not be surprised at the form "steddy orthographical conglomeration" has being produced. In the middle and upbeen held in some provincial town. It is per class this would not be likely, yet we wonderful, if we come to think of it, how find this form, and not "steady," in "Pope's much force and charm of language may be Works," printed in 1766. The same gained without ever troubling the long book shows that "sallad" was then usual, words at all. The beautiful lines begin- and "smoakless." We find also "oeconning," Drink to me only with thine eyes," omy," from which, since it became polithave been often quoted to show this. An-ical, a letter has been retrenched. We other instance is the speech of Hamlet, also find "chearful" and "devellop." "To be or not to be." Or take that text of But it is surprising to turn over many Jeremiah which denounces one of the kings pages of this edition of Pope without findof Judah, "O earth, earth, earth, hearing more than very minute differences the word of the Lord," etc. Or the words from the spelling of the present day. of the burial service, "Man that is born of a woman," etc. Or Pope's "Universal Prayer." Or several stanzas of Gray's "Elegy." Or the lines in which Scott describes his countrymen's stubborn fight in Flodden. All these and many more of the best-remembered passages in English literature might be searched in vain for words hard enough to set at a spellingbee.

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A knowledge of Greek and Latin must save competitors in spelling from many pitfalls. Îf the ladies who gained distinction were ignorant of these languages, they must have been gifted with retentive memories. Take for example such a word as "sympathetic," and it would seem quite possible for a person who knows no Greek to put "i" for "y." And in " metamorphosis" there would be an opening for "f." In some remarks on spelling which A mistake would be easy in "internecine" were written about forty years ago we or "parallelogram." It might perhaps be find the sensible rule laid down that the said that it would take longer to learn contemporary usage of persons of culti- Greek and Latin than to learn spelling as vation is the authority to which each per- a mere collection of instances without son who aspires to write correctly must principles, but the latter would be very defer. The writer gives some examples hard work. It is difficult enough for anyin which variety of usage existed at that body to learn English spelling, because of time, and if he be accepted as sufficient its irregularity. The rule which compels authority, it follows that at the time he us to write "succeed” and “precede" is wrote "complete" and "compleat" were merely arbitrary, and even some educated equally right, or at least neither was people have to think twice before putting wrong. But we fear that, if the latter on paper "believe" and "receive." We form were produced at a “spelling-bee," have now settled to write "surprise,” but shouts of laughter would proclaim that in the last century this and other comthe respondent's chance of the prize was pounds of the French prendre were gone. In Ainsworth's Dictionary of 1751 written with "z." A place in a spellingboth complete" and "compleat" are class ought not, we think, to be lost by given in the English-Latin part, although using "z "in any of these words. But a it would appear that the latter is pre- person who knows French would prefer to ferred; and in the Latin-English part write these words with "s," just as a percompletus is rendered "compleat." son who knows Greek would write "anIn the middle of the last century "ex-alyse," although we find this word spelt pence was usual, and we could not now with "z" in the edition of Pope before say that it is exactly wrong, although we referred to. The word "schedule," which should certainly write " expense.' The was lately set, is a trap, at least if it be

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she was very ignorant or very careless. When we have once heard and understood this word, it would be difficult to misspell it.

pronounced, as some people pronounce it, softly. It is usual in correspondence to speak of an "inclosed" letter, but Parliament still passes "enclosure acts." Such words as abridgment and irrecon- The popularity of these competitions in cilable are thought by many people to the United States is one of the many forwant another "e," and, whatever be the tunate circumstances of that country. It correct rule, it is certainly convenient to cannot be too often impressed on Ameridrop an unnecessary letter. The old- can speakers that when they come to write fashioned pronunciation of "obliged" may they must add a "g to the word which have led many into what can hardly be they call "fixins," and that they must not called an error. As for "honourable," | spell calculate with an "i." It might be and other words of the same class, there awkward if the manager of a "spellingwill perhaps never be, and there certainly bee," either in America or here, prois not, agreement. We should write of nounced words as he hears his friends the "license " of the press, but acts of and neighbours speak, and then applied Parliament require publicans to take out the standard of some dictionary to the "licences." It is perhaps desirable to be spelling of them. It appears that a "spellstrict in spelling, because pronunciation ing-bee" has lately been "inaugurated" at varies, and if spelling followed it there Gloucester, and it is proper that a big would soon be no standard of correctness word should be made to do duty on this in speech. But it is possible to carry occasion. This competition was finally accuracy to an extreme. There is a wide decided on the word "ecclesiastic," and difference between spelling "supernumer- it may be inferred that the person who ary" without its penultimate syllable, and failed to spell it correctly had never spelling "postillion" with one "1." The heard it before, and did not know whence former, if not carelesssness, must be it came, or what it meant. Spelling gross ignorance, like that shown in spell- such words as this is a test, not so ing "quadrilateral" with an "o" in the much of spelling, as of the general educalast syllable, or commensurate " with tion and associations of the competitor"o," instead of "u." Here, again, a not that that is an objection to them. The small knowledge of Latin would have pre- same remark might be made on "millenvented mistakes which seem to have nium," with the addition that failure in this arisen from an untutored ear listening to word would imply ignorance of Latin, a vulgar tongue. A person who said which it is hardly expected that a comquadrilatoral” or commensorate must mercial clerk should know. Some years have escaped the influence both of school ago a bet upon the word "reindeer and society. We saw lately a lady's letter, caused great excitement in the sporting in which "areas was written for "ar- world. It was alleged that the gentleman rears," and it might be charitably thought who induced a friend to bet on the spellthat ignorance of the thing made her un-ing of this word had looked beforehand at familiar with its name. In the strictest a dictionary. But, on reference to several age of pleading and practice at common dictionaries, it appeared that both "reinlaw, the principle of idem sonans was ap- deer" and "raindeer" were recognized. plied, and we think the same principle It is stated that at Gloucester failure ocought to prevail to some extent in a "spell- curred at such words as, among others, ing-bee," but it is difficult to say how far."broccoli." Now, on referring to the If this amusement becomes fashionable, there will no doubt be dictionaries expressly printed for it, with a set of rules, and it certainly would promote more accurate knowledge of our language. When an assembly receives the spelling of "ecstatic" with an "x" with shouts of derisive laughter, it is evident that many people. have a good deal to learn. But the spelling of "cynical" with "le" at the end, instead of "al," shows ignorance of the meaning and origin of the word, and that sort of ignorance may fitly excite derision. The lady who had to spell "aurora borealis" could scarcely go wrong, unless

first dictionary we have at hand (an English-Latin one of 1845) we find "brocoli." Yet it would appear that a competitor was disqualified for adopting this form. People of rather wider views as to language should, if possible, take the direction of these competitions.

From The Gardener's Chronicle.
HOPS.

THE history of the introduction of the hop into general use, as given in our pub

lic records, is by no means devoid of in- in regard of their stench, etc., and hops, terest. It is stated that in the fourth in regard they would spoil the taste of year of King Henry VI. (1425–26) an infor- | drink, and endanger the people." But mation was laid against a person for put- from this time forward the general use of ting into beer "an unwholesome weed hops was thoroughly established. An called an hopp;" and that in the same act passed in the reign of Queen Anne reign Parliament was petitioned against inflicts a penalty of £20 upon all brewers "that wicked weed called hops." In the who shall use any other bitter than hops reign of Henry VIII. their use seems to in their malt liquors, and a similar enacthave been fully established, although the ment under George III. imposes a fine of brewer of the royal household was pro- £5 per cwt. upon those who shall adulhibited from using it in his ale. In the terate hops by giving them scent or col statute-book for 1552 the cultivation of our by drugs, while the cutting of hophops is distinctly sanctioned; and in 1574 bines growing in a plantation is made Reynolde Scot published a black-letter felony "without benefit of clergy." Altreatise, with woodcuts, expressly on the though the chief use of the hop is that cultivation of hops, which is called "A connected with our national beverage, it Perfite Plat Forme of a Hoppe Garden." has been put to other purposes of some In 1603 English-grown hops were exten- little importance. Cloth of considerable sively used, as appears from an act of strength is made from the fibrous stems James I., and, although their use was pe- of the plant in Sweden, and the Society titioned against, and nominally condemned of Arts in 1791 awarded a premium to a in the same reign, this prohibition was Berkshire farmer who had succeeded in but little attended to. Another article a similar manufacture. The attention of which "the famous City of London" also petitioned against would be nowadays regarded as being even more indispensable than hops. Blith, in "The English Improver Improved" (published in 1653), says, "It is not many years since the famous City of London petitioned the Parliament of England against two nuisances, and these were Newcastle coals,

paper-makers has also been directed to this as to most other fibrous plants. The young shoots are sometimes cooked and eaten like asparagus, and are said to be very good; in Gerard's days these "buds or first sprouts" were used in salads, although that author regarded them as "more toothsome than nourishing."

NEW AERIAL MACHINE. - Experiments | breeze is necessary to float it in the air, withwere made on the Great Lines, on the 15th out which it is of but little use, as was proved inst., at Chatham, by order of the authorities, by the experiments. The machine having with the new aerial machine, the invention of been got ready, and a sand-bag being placed Mr. Simmonds, the aeronaut. The experi- where the car would be, a number of Royal ments were made under the direction and in Engineers attempted to get it up by running the presence of the Royal Engineer Committee, with a rope, which was attached to the framea large number of officers being upon the work, the process being precisely similar to ground. The machine, should it answer, is that employed by boys in flying kites. After intended to be used in the field in time of war, one or two attempts, the machine went up, by means of which observations might be and after reaching a height of about one huntaken. It is a large affair, the covering being dred feet, the ballast was not sufficient, and of French cambric, made waterproof by being there was not enough wind to keep it in the coated with a solution of india-rubber, the air, consequently it fell to the ground, by the framework being made of spans of wood about concussion some of the framework was broken, an inch and a quarter thick, and thin galva- and the experiments were thus stopped. It is nized iron wire, and when in the air it assumes thought that with a good breeze the experi the shape of a parachute, on the covering be- ments would have been successful. The damcoming fully inflated. It is said that the ages will be repaired, and some further experiadvantage it has over a balloon is, that it re- ments made next week. quires no gas to inflate it, but then a good