་ iv. THE NEW COVENANT.-As an idea in the religious history of Israel the new covenant means: first, that Israel's national existence and all her institutions, civil and sacred, shall be dissolved (Hos 33t.); J′′ shall say of her, She is not my people, neither am I hers' (Hos 19 2o). And secondly, that this divorce of Israel shall be but temporary-as it is, in fact, merely apparent (Is 401 4914. 501 516.); the relation between her and J" shall be renewed: I will say unto them which were not my people, Thou art my people; and they shall say, Thou art my God (Hos 23 110). This is the faith and prediction of all the prophets, of Dt and of P (above in § iii.). The Exile was the dissolution of the relation between Israel and J", the rupture of the old covenant (Jer 312); the Restoration shall be the renewal of the relation, the establishment of a new covenant. But around the renewal of the relation gather all the religious | ideals and aspirations of the prophets, the forgiveness of sin, righteousness and peace, and everlasting joy-the relation is renewed amidst the tumultuous jubilation of creation (Is 4210 4421-23). In its visions of the new covenant OT becomes Christian. Jer. is the first to use the word new, but the term adds nothing to what had been already said in the words spoken by J" to her who had been cast off: 'I will betroth thee unto me for ever (Hos 219 31). In terms the new covenant is nothing but the old I will be their God, and they shall be my people' (Jer 3133); its novelty (apart from the reference to the future) lies in its subjective reality; its terms are realized in their deepest sense. It is in this view only that its promises are 'better' (He 8o). The prophets and Dt insist greatly on the duties of the people, and assume that they are able to perform them. But when Jer. and Ezk. review the people's history, which has been one long act of unfaithfulness, they despair of the people (Jer 13). To Jeremiah's expostulations the reply seems to come back, It is hope. less' (225). Hope is now only in God. J" will make a new covenant with Israel, that is, forgive their sins and write His law on their hearts-the one in His free grace, the other by His creative act; and thus the covenant idea shall be realized, 'I will be their God,' etc. The second part of the promise is developed in Deutero-Is. 'This is my covenant, saith J", my spirit which is upon thee, and my words which I have put in thy mouth' (592); and even more fully in Ezk 3624, cf. 116. In 2034. Ezk. describes the act of making the new covenant, which is a repetition of that at the Exodus. This new, everlasting covenant is due to God's remembrance of His former covenant (1659). Both Jer. and Ezk. bring the new covenant into connexion with the Davidic or Messianic covenant (Jer 3314-16. 20-26, Ezk 3721-28, cf. 172.). In Deutero-Is. (40 ff.) the assurance of a new covenant reposes on two great conceptions-the universalistic conception of J"as God, and that of the invincible power of the knowledge of the true God once implanted in the heart of mankind. J" is God alone, Creator, He that giveth breath unto the people, and in this all is said: He shall yet be acknowledged by all, By myself have I sworn that to me every knee shall bow' (45-3428). And Israel is His witness (43). There is no mention of former covenants with the fathers or Israel. J" called Israel (419 426 491-6 512), and in the act of calling He planted in Israel the consciousness of its meaning in the moral history of mankind-'I said unto thee, Thou art my servant' (418). There is no God but J", and Israel is His servant, to bring forth judgment to the nations, to be the light of the Gentiles, that the salvation of J" may be to the end of the earth (496). The knowledge of the true God has been given to mankind once for all in Israel; and this idea of the | true knowledge or word of the true God implanted in Israel, incarnated in the seed of Abraham-this idea personified into a Being is the Servant of the Lord. One might not be able anywhere or at any time to lay his finger on this Being, but he was there, had always been there since Israel's call and the creation of its consciousness (491-6). And the religious history of mankind was a Process at Law, the conduct of the great Cause of the Servant against the nations, their wrongs and idolatries. In this cause he was righteous, that is, in the right: his cause was that of J", and though he stood contra mundum he would surely prevail: 'I know that I shall not be put to shame' (509). So the Servant becomes a covenant of the people, to restore the tribes of Jacob (426 49°). And this is too light a thing, he shall also be the light of the nations. The new covenant is one of peace (54), is everlasting (553 618), and the Gentiles may take hold of it (561-8 445). In the above and all late writings bĕrith is used in a general way, not of the act of agreement, but of its conditions or any one of them, and thus of the religion of Israel as a whole (Is 56', Ps 10318). So it is used of the relation created by the covenant; the new covenant is not thought of as a formal act of agreement, but as the realizing in history of the true covenant idea. The term berith had a charm and power, and was clung to, partly because it expressed the most solemn and unalterable assurance on God's part that He would be the people's salvation, and partly, perhaps, because it suggested that He acted with men after the manner of men, graciously engaging Himself to them, and entering into their life. The covenant thus took form in their heart, awakening hopes and ideals towards which, kindled and elevated by the divine fellowship, they might strive. And thus the covenants were not only promises_of redemption, but stages in its attainment. For God's covenants were not isolated and unmotived interpositions, they attached themselves to lofty spiritual conditions of men's minds,--to the 'faith' of Abraham (Gn 157), to David's absorbing purpose to prepare an house for J" (2 S 7, Ps 132), to the 'zeal' of Levi and Phinehas, and to the elevated religious mind of Israel in the hour of its redemption. By the time of the LXX translation bĕrith had become a religious term in the sense of a onesided engagement on the part of God, as in P and late writings; and to this may be due the use of the word dia0kn, disposition or appointment, though the term was then somewhat inappropriately applied to reciprocal engagements among men. In the Ep. to the Hebrews the word is used both for covenant and testament, the idea of covenant as a onesided disposition naturally sliding into that of testament when the other ideas of inheritance and death are involved (915-17). The Ep. develops in detail Jer 3131, particularly the promise, I will remember their sins no more.' The Day of Atonement (Lv 16), in which the piacular rites of OT culminated, is used as a frame into which to insert the work of Christ; and the rites and actions of the high priest on that day, which could never realize the idea they embodied, serve as a foil to the sacrifice and high priesthood of Christ, which 'for ever perfected the sanctified.' The other half of the promise, 'In their hearts I will write iny law,' is not developed in the Ep. (cf. ref. to the Spirit, Is 59, Ezk 362.). St. Paul employs the term dan (Gal 315), but in the sense of an engagement on the part of God, which is, as he calls it, a promise. In the main he follows P, e.g. (1) in assuming that there is but one covenant, the Aristoph. Av. 439, is quoted as an ex. of the meaning 'convention,' mutual engagement. Had this sense established itself in the common' dialect of the 3rd cent. B.C.? Abrahamic (Gn 17); (2) in regarding circumcision as the sign of it; and (3) in regarding the Sinaitic revelation as subordinate to the covenant and a means of realizing it-though in a different sense from P. The revelation at Sinai was not the making of a covenant, but the giving of a law. With Gn 17, however, he combines Gn 15, and the wider promise that all nations should be blessed | in the seed of Abraham. The covenant with Abraham was a purely spiritual deed, and contemplated only spiritual ends. The promise of heirship of the world was given to Abraham and to his seed, which seed is Christ, in whom the promise has been fulfilled. Further, the promise was given to Abraham, the believer, and to his seed, which seed all believers are, who are heirs according to the promise, being, as one with Christ, joint-heirs with Him. In the institution of the Supper the term dia is also used, and combined with the sacrificial idea as in Ex 245., cf. He 919.. tion; he uses two different words, movμéw in Ro, now in 1 Co; it is AV only. The older Eng. VSS have generally lust' in quoting the com mandment, or where they have covet' they give some other word in 1 Co, as 1 Co 121 Wyclif'sue,' Rheims pursue'; 149 W. 'love,' R. 'be earnest.' RV has desire earnestly' in 1 Co. 'Covet' (from Fr. convoiter, Lat. cupere, cupiditare), scarcely used now in a good sense, was at first quite neutral = eagerly desire, as Caxton (1483), She ever coveyted the pees and love of her lord.' Covet after,' as 1 Ti 60, is obsolete. (The Gr. in this place is opéyw, and RV gives reach after,' a happy change, opéyw and reach' being phonetically as well as idiomatically identical.) J. HASTINGS. COVETOUSNESS.-The verb covet and its parts are used in a wider sense in the Scriptures than the noun covetousness, which has always a reference to property, and is a rendering of the Heb. ys and denunciations of this sin, which is brought into the Gr. Aeovegia. In OT there are found frequent PHRASEOLOGY.-The usual phrase to make a covenant is 'to cut' (777); in 2 S 235 to appoint' (D). In P 'to give' (close connexion on the one hand with violence (Jer Gn 912 172), and to set up a covenant' (`pa), are common. The latter word often means 'to uphold,' but the sense 'set up' or make is undoubted; the determination of covenant' by pron. occurs also with in and n (2 S 312). Of both parties it is said, 'they made a covenant' (Ġn 2127 314); the superior, or whoever takes the initiative, makes a covenant with (N, D) the other (2 8 312, Gn 2028). To make a covenant to or for () | may mean to submit a covenant to,' i.e. for acceptance (Jos 2425), or to make a covenant or undertake an obligation for the advantage of' one (Ex 2332, 2 S 53). This construction is always used of covenants with the natives of Canaan (Ex 2332 3412, 15, Dt 72, Jg 22), and becomes very common in later style in conformity with the extended usage of prep. to. See more fully Valeton, xii. 2 ff., 227 ff.; Krætzsch. pp. 50 f., 205 ff., 247 ff.; Oxƒ. Heb. Lex. 8.v. LITERATURE-Art. Bund' in Schenkel's and Riehm's DB. The OT Theologies: Riehm, p. 68 ff.; Schultz (Eng. tr.), ii. 1 ff.; Smend, pp. 24 ff., 294 ff.; Dillmann, pp. 107 ff., 419 ff. H. Guthe, De foederis notione Jeremiana, Leip. 1877; Valeton, ZAW xii. xiii. (1892-93); Candlish, Expository Times, 1892 (Oct., Nov.); Krætzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alt. Test., Marburg, 1896. On the Federal Theology see an art. by T. M. Lindsay, Brit. and For. Ev. Rev. July 1879. A. B. DAVIDSON. COVER.-1. Following Sa'adya, Talm., and most Eng. VSS, AV gives covers. to cover withal,' as one of the vessels used in the tabernacle, Ex 252 3716, Nu 47. RV (after LXX, Vulg., Syr., Targ., Luther) gives 'flagons. . to pour out withal.' The same word (ny) is used in 1 Ch 2817 of one kind of vessels given by David to Solomon for the temple; EV 'cups.' 2. In Jg 32, 1 S 248 to cover one's feet' is a literal tr. of the Heb. (7) euphemistically used for performing the offices of nature (so LXX, Jg 3 áπокEVOÛV TOÙS Todas, but 1 S 243 (4) πаρаσ κeváσaobai; Vulg. purgare alvum, and p. ventrem; Luther in Jg, zu Stuhl gegangen, but in 1 S, Füsse zu decken). On the scrupulous regard for decency among Orientals, see Ges. Lex. J. HASTINGS. COVERT.-Scarcely now in use, except for game, and then generally spelt cover, 'covert' is used in AV for-1. A covered place,' 2 K 1618; 'the c. for the sabbath that they had built in the house' (Ileb. Kth. ', kere 1, LXX TOV OEμéλov TÊS Ka@éopas, RV the covered way for the sabbath,' RVm covered place'). 2. Any shelter, as Is 4" a c. from storm and from rain'; or hiding place, as Job 3840 the young lions... abide in the c. to lie in wait'; 1S 2520 she [Abigail] came down by the c. of the hill,' that is, where the hill hid her from view; cf. 1 Mac 938 hid themselves under the c. of the mountain.' J. HASTINGS. · ་ COVET. The law had said, Thou shalt not covet' (Ro 77); 'Covet earnestly the best gifts' (1 Co 12), and covet to prophesy' (149). It is not St. Paul that offers this startling contradic 2217, Hab 29), and on the other with fraud (Jer 81o); and this connexion shows that action as well as desire to get another's goods is meant (Mic 22). The forms of the sin singled out for rebuke are usury, seizing the land of the weak and poor, selling debtors into slavery, and taking bribes to pervert justice. The judges to be chosen by Moses were to be men hating unjust gain' (Ex 181). Covetousness brought ruin on Achan and his house (Jos 721). Samuel in laying down office asserted his innocence of this sin (1°S 123). Turning to NT, we find that Jesus warned men against covetousness, wherewith His opponents the Pharisees were charged (Lk 1614), and enforced His warning with the parable of the Rich Fool (Lk 1213-21). St. Paul in several of his letters includes covetousness, which he calls idolatry (Col 35), among the very worst sins (Ro 129, Eph 53, 1 Co 61o). He had to defend himself against the charge of covetousness in connexion with the collection for the poor at Jerus. (1 Th 25, 2 Co 8; cf. Ac 20). There were some teachers in the Church whose aim was worldly gain (2 P 23); and accordingly one of the necessary qualifications of a bishop was freedom from the love of money (1 Ti 33). The remedy for covetousness as for the anxiety about food and raiment, which hinders undivided service (Mt 619-4), is trust in God's fatherly care and abiding faithfulness (He 135). Regarding the sense of 'covet' in the tenth commandment (Ex 2017), it is held by some that it includes not only the desire to have another's property, but also the effort to make it one's own (Schultz, O.T. Theol., Eng. tr. ii. p. 52). In Dt 521 with its more inward morality, only the desire may be referred to. In St. Paul's reference the inwardness of the law is asserted (Ro 77). He might claim to be blameless in outward acts, but this commandment convicted him of sinfulness in his wishes, not for gain simply, but also for other unlawful objects. A. E. GARVIE. COW.-See CATTLE. COZBI_( 'deceitful,' Xaoßi).-The Midianitess slain by Phinehas (Nu 2515. 18 ̊P). COZEBA (1 Ch 422).-See ACHZIB. CRACKNELS.-Only 1K 143 take with thee ten loaves and cracknels." The Heb. (3) is found elsewhere only Jos 95, of the bread' the Gibeonites carried with them on their pretended long journey. It is supposed to mean bread that crumbles easily, hence the Eng. tr., 'cracknel' being a dialectic variety of crackling. See BREAD. J. HASTINGS. a CRAFT. In the mod. sense of guile, Dn 825, 2 Mac 1224, Mk 14'; for already by 1611 the word had lost its orig. sense of power,' strength,' when it could be distinctly set against cunning, as Caxton (1474), Chesse, Thou hast vaynquisshed them... by subtilnes. . But I that am romiayn shal vaynquisshe them by craft and strength of armes.' Elsewhere in AV c.' means 'trade,' an early application of the word (=that to which a man gives his strength). So 'Craftsman'='tradesman,' as Rev 18 no craftsman of whatsoever craft he be.' In Rich. II. 1. iv. 28, Shaks. plays upon the double sense of 'craft' · 'Wooing poor craftsmen with the craft of smiles.' Crafty and Craftiness are always used in the modern degenerated sense. J. HASTINGS. CRANE. The word oo súș, or c`p șîș, tr. in AV crane, should be tr. swallow (so RV). The first of these words occurs in Hezekiah's prayer (Is 3814). Here ( 1 my oop) sús is a swallow, and 'agúr possibly an adjective which means twittering. The passage would then be tr. as a twittering swallow I chatter.' In the second passage (Jer 87) occurs the second form (1) Dp), and here sis is again a swallow, and 'agûr the twitterer (?). If the passage be tr. as a swallow and a twitterer,' the latter probably refers to another species of swallow, or one of the twittering birds of passage, of which there are many in the Holy Land. In the passage in Jer. the allusion is to the migratory habits of the bird, and its note; in Isaial to its note alone. Some of the swallows, as the swift or martin, are known to the Arabs by the name sus or sis, and utter a piercing shriek as they fly, but the allusion here is to the twittering of the birds in nesting time. By no stretch of imagination could the whoop or trumpeting of the crane be called twittering. Some have supposed that the yanshuph (Lv 1117, Dt 1416), tr. in AV and RV great owl, and yanshôph (Is 34"), tr. in both owl, are the crane. But, in the absence of evidence in its favour, we must drop the crane from the fauna of the Bible. G. E. POST. CRATES (Kpárns), a deputy left in charge of the citadel at Jerusalem (Acra) when the regular governor, Sostratus, was summoned to Antioch by Antiochus Epiphanes, in consequence of a dispute with the high priest Menelaus (2 Mac 429). Crates is termed the governor of the Cyprians (тòv éì TV Kumpiwv, RV who was over the Cyprians'): probably he was sent to Cyprus shortly afterwards, when, in 168 B.C., Antiochus obtained possession of the island. Some MSS read here wσrpatos dè KρаThσas Tŵv ènì т. Kun.; so Vulg. Sostratus prælatus est Cypriis. H. A. WHITE. CREATION.-See COSMOGONY, CREATURE. CREATURE is the somewhat loose rendering of nephesh (1), breathing being, in Gn and Lv (once in Gn-10-of sherez (P), swarming being, or, as it is there put, moving creature), and, in Ezk, of hai (), living being (rendered, in each case, living creature). In NT, quite accurately, it represents Kтioμa, and shares with creation the representation of Krious. Neither Krioμa nor кrious is ever employed by the LXX as a tr. of nephesh, sherez, or hai, the favourite equivalents for these words respectively being vuxh, épπеTÓν, and @ov. In Gn the verb bara' (77, 'create') is tr. solely by roLETV: Krišεw represents it first in Dt 42, and afterwards more usually than TOLE; while both stand for it, sometimes side by side, in Deutero-Isaiah (e.g. 45). Since motiv is simply to make, while Krier is (classically) to found (a city, a colony), and so to make from the beginning, originally, for the first time (not necessarily out of nothing), KTV is especially fitted to express God's creative activity not only in the physical (Ec 121, Ro 125), but also in the spiritual sphere (Col 310. For an OT premonition of the spiritual sense, see Ps 5112, where create, «rišeiv, and renew, ἐνκαινίζειν, recall together the καινή κτίσις, newo creature, of 2 Co 517). The use of the subst. Tios exactly corresponds. In contradistinction to Kтioμa, which points to the creative act completed and embodied, it denotes sometimes the creative act in process (Ro 120), at other times the thing created, regard being paid to the process of its production. It is used (1) physically (a) of the whole creation (so invariably in OT and Apocr.; in NT, Ro 822), often with special reference to mankind as the creation (Mk1615, Col 12); (b) of the individual creation, the creature (like the purely physical KTĺσμa of the Apocr. and NT), Ro 89; (2) spiritually, of the new creature (2 Co 517, Gal 613), and the new creation (Ro 820-23) in Christ Jesus, the original and originator of the new race, and the renovator of nature as a whole. Cf. the rabbinical expressions běriyah ḥādāshāh, 'new creation,' of a man converted to Judaism; and hiddúsh ha'ôlām, 'the new age' (lit. newness of the age) to be ushered in by the Messiah; also Isaiah's new heavens and new earth' (6517), the ralıyyeveola, regeneration (Mt 1928), and the ȧTоKатáσтασis Távтwv, restitution of all things (Ac 321). The classical sense of Kriše, to found, occurs only in 1 Es 453, but is traceable in the meaning of Kriots in 1 P 213, ráoŋ ȧv0pwπivy Tloe, ‘every institution, i.e. ordinance, of man.' J. MASSIE. CREDIT.-1 Mac 1046 When Jonathan and the people heard these words, they gave no credit unto them' (oux éπiorevσav aurois, RV credence'). Cf. Introd. to Rhemish NT, "The discerning of Canonical from not Canonical, and of their infallible truth, and sense, commeth unto us, only by the credite we give unto the Catholike Churchie.' J. HASTINGS. CREDITOR.-See DEBT. CREED.-A creed is an authorized statement or definition of religious beliefs. The name is usually limited in its application to the three formulas known as the Apostles', the Nicene (or Constantinopolitan), and the Athanasian. The history of these documents has been the subject of minute and elaborate investigation. The most convenient collection of the materials for study is to be found in Hahn's Biblioth. d. Symb. u. Glaubensreg. d. alt. Kirche3, 1897. The earliest traces of the Apostles' Creed are investigated in vol. i. pt. 2, of Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn's Patr. Apost. Op., and Harnack, Anhang to Hahn (ed. 2); and the recent controversy as to its original meaning, and the source of certain clauses, is accessible in Harnack, Apost. Glaubensbek., and Swete, Apostles' Creed. As Swainson has observed, it is necessary to remark that until the tenth century the name 'apostles' or 'apostolic' was applied to the Nicene as well as to the Western symbol to which it is now appropriated; both were regarded as embodying the apostolic teaching, and the epithet 'apostolic' does not always entitle us to say that the Latin symbol is the one meant. But the purpose of this article is not to enter p the origin and history of the creeds, but to indicate their biblical suggestions or anticipations. Pagan religion was a rite rather than a doctrine; if the ceremonial were duly performed, the worshipper was at liberty to interpret it, or leave it unexplained, as he pleased. The myths which in a certain sense rationalize ritual do not amount to a doctrine; there is nothing in them binding the reason or faith of the worshipper; and pagan religion has no theology or creed. Neither has it a historical basis, which might be exhibited and guarded by a solemn recital of sacred facts. In St. Paul delights, sometimes objective as in Ro 18f., sometimes subjective as in 2 Th 213f., Tit 3+7, influenced the formulation of Christian truth for catechetical purposes, or were themselves due to the need for it; but it is obvious that outlines of gospel teaching, such as the apostles delivered everywhere, must soon have been required and supplied. Such an outline may be referred to in 2 Τί 118ὑποτύπωσιν ἔχε ὑγιαινόντων λόγων—though it may well be the case that something is denoted much more copious than anything we call a creed : a catechist's manual, for instance, such as might contain the bulk of one of our gospels. It is usual to assume that by παραθήκη οι παρακαταθήκη (1 Τί 620, 2 Ti 118) is meant the faith once delivered to the saints,' in the sense of a creed or deposit of doctrine; and though good scholars dispute this, and suppose the ref. to be to Timothy's vocation as a minister of the gospel, the assumption is probably correct. For in the first passage the mapа0ýkη is opposed to profane babblings and oppositions of knowledge falsely so called, which some professing have erred concerning the faith'; and in the second, it is evidently parallel to the form or outline of sound words.' There are several passages in which St. Paul uses the word kýрvyμa to denote the contents of his gospel (Ro 1625, Tit 13 kýρvyμа ŏ 6 σTεúony év) in a way which suggests that idea of the gospel which would naturally find embodiment in a creed. The TÚTos didaxns of Ro 617 is evidently wider than anything we mean by creed. There is one passage in NT (He 61f) in which the elementary doctrines of the Christian religion are enumerated, partly from a subjective point of view (repentance and faith), partly more objectively (resurrection and judgment). In one place the reality of the Incarnation is expressly asserted as the foundation of the Christian religion, and as a test of all 'spirits,' in a tone which had immense influence on early Christian dogma (1 Jn 42f.). The creeds of Christendom go back to these small beginnings. The tendency to produce them is plainly as old as the work of Christian preaching and teaching; and their legitimate use, as all these NT passages suggest, is to exhibit and guard the truth as it has been revealed in and by Jesus. If it be true that the dogma of Christianity is the Trinity, and that this is the central content of the creeds, it must be remembered that the trinitarian conception of God depends upon the revelation of the Father, and the gift of the Spirit, both of which are dependent on the knowledge of the Son. In other words, it is truth as truth is in Jesus.' But on this view of the content of the creeds, we should have to refer for the Scripture basis of them to such passages (besides those quoted above) as 1 Co 1246, 2 Co 134, Eph 218, Jude 2-21, Jn 14–16. Apart from the authenticity of Mt 2819, these are sufficient to show how instinctive is the combination of Father, Son, and Spirit in the thought of NT writers, and how completely the problem is set in Christian experience to which the Church doctrine of the Trinity, as embodied in the NiceneConstantinopolitan creed, is an answer. The historical, as opposed to theological, statements in the creeds claim to rest on direct Scripture authority. LITERATURE.-Swainson, Apostolic and Nicene Creeds; Heurtley, Harmonia Symbolica; Caspari, Ungedruckte, etc.; Quellen 2. Ges. d. Taufsymbols u. d. Glaubensregel; Lumby, Hist. of Creeds; Zahn, Apost. Symb. (1892); and the works of Hahn, Harnack, and Swete referred to above. J. DENNEY. **CREeping thinGS.-Much confusion is sometimes occasioned by the fact that two distinct Heb. terms are (frequently) represented by this expression in the EV. (1) The term which is most correctly so represented is rémes (“??), from rāmas, to glide or creep : ** Copyright, 1898, by Charles Scribner's Sons : under this term 'creeping things' are mentioned Gn 124. 25 (as created, together with cattle,' and beasts of the earth' [i.e. speaking generally, herbivora and carnivora], on the sixth day); 126 (as given into the dominion of man, together with the 'fish of the sea,' the 'fowl of the air,' the 'cattle and all beasts [Pesh.] of the earth'); 67.20 714.28 817.19 (as spared, usually together with cattle' and 'fowl,' on occasion of the Flood); in other allusions to the animal kingdom, often by the side of 'beasts,' 'cattle,' 'fowl,' or 'fishes,' 1 K 433 (513) 'He spake also of cattle, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes,' Hos 218 (20); Hab 114 (the Chaldæan makes men to be as the fishes of the sea, as the creeping things, over whom is no ruler'), Ezk 810 (figures of them worshipped by Israelites), 382), Ps 14810. In Gn 93 [RV moving thing], where the term stands by itself, it is used more generally of all gliding or creeping things (cf. the verb in Gn 128 721 819 [RV moveth, moved]; Ps 10420) and in Ps 10425 of gliding aquatic creatures (cf. the verb in Gn 121, Lv 1146, Ps 6934 (35) [RV moveth]); so also perhaps (note the context, esp. v.15) in Hab 114. The corresponding verb is often found closely joined to it, Gn 125 71 817, Ezk 382); or used synonymously, Gn 13) 78 92 (RV teemeth), Lv 2025 (RV id.), Dt 418 (by the side of cattle, fowl, and fish), cf. Lv 1144 (RV moveth). These are all the occurrences of either the subst. or the verb. From a survey of the passages in which rémes occurs, especially those (as Gn 126, 1 K 48) in which it stands beside beasts, fowls, and fishes, in popular classifications of the animal kingdom, it is evident that it is the most general term denoting reptiles, which, especially in the East, would be the most conspicuous and characteristic of living species, when beasts, fowls, and fishes had been excluded. Dillm. and Keil (on Gn 124) both define it as denoting creatures moving on the ground either without feet, or with imperceptible feet.' It is often defined more precisely by the addition of that creepeth upon the earth,' or (Gn 125 620, Hos 218) upon the ground.' The term not being a scientific one, it included also, perhaps, creeping insects, and possibly even very small quadrupeds: but the limitation of rémes to the smaller quadrupeds of the earth' (to the exclusion of reptiles), which has been devised (Dawson, Modern Science in Bible Lands, 1888, p. 28) for the purpose of harmonizing' Gn 1 with the teachings of palæontology, is arbitrary, and cannot be sustained. It (2) The other term, also sometimes unfortunately rendered creeping things,' is shérez (17): this is applied to creatures, whether terrestrial or aquatic, which appear in swarins, and is accordingly best represented by swarming things. occurs (sometimes with the cognate verb) Gn 12 'let the water swarm with swarming things,' cf. v.21 every living soul [see SOUL] that creepeth, wherewith the waters swarmed'; 721 (beside fowl and cattle and beast) 'every swarming thing that swarmed upon the earth'; Lv 52 the carcases of unclean swarming things'; 1110 of all the swarming things of the waters'; v.2) (= Dt 1419), vv. 21. 23 'winged swarming things' (i.e. flying insects: locusts are instanced); v.2 swarming things, that swarm upon the earth' (the weasel, the mouse, and various kinds of lizards are instanced), cf. v.31 'among all swarming things'; vv. 41. 42. 43 'every swarming thing that swarmeth upon the earth'including (v.2) insects with more than four feet; v. any swarming thing that creepeth upon the earth'; v.16 every living soul that glideth (cf. above, No. 1) in the waters, and every living soul that swarmeth upon the earth'; 225 whoso toucheth any swarming thing by which he may become unclean.' The cognate verb shāraz occurs also Ex 83 (728) 'the river shall swarm with frogs' (cf. | เ Ps 10580); Ezk 479 every living soul that swarmeth' (viz. in a river); and fig., of animals generally, Gn 817 (RV breed abundantly), and of men, 97 (RV id.) Ex 17 (of the Israelites multiplying in Egypt: RV increased abundantly). Shérez thus denotes creatures that appear in swarms, whether such as teem in the water, or those which swarm on the ground or in the air, i.e. creeping and flying insects, small reptiles, such as lizards, and sinall quadrupeds, as the weasel and the mouse. Shérez and rémes are not co-extensive; for, though particular animals, as small reptiles, would no doubt be included under either designation, rémes would not be applied to flying insects, or (at least properly) to aquatic creatures, nor is it certain that it was applied to small quadrupeds, or even to creeping insects; while shérez would not probably be used of large reptiles, or of any, in fact, which did not usually appear in swarms. S. R. DRIVER. cremation would be difficult or impossible. In the NT there is no instance of cremation, whether Jewish, Christian, or heathen; and there is abundant evidence that the early Christians followed the Jewish practice of burial, with or without embalming (Minuc. Felix, Octav. xxxix.; Tert. Apol. xlii.; Aug. De Civ. Dei, i. 12, 13). It was to outrage this well-known Christian senti** Copyright, 1898, by Charles Scribner's Sons |