From Rio de Janeiro, May 1, 1808, the prince-regent declared all treaties with France and Spain null, and formed a closer union with England, which, powerfully supported by the bravery of the Portuguese army and the ardor of the people, recovered for him the possession of his European kingdom. Marshal Beresford continued to exercise an important influence on the affairs of Portugal, till August, 1820, when, by the convocation of the cortes, a new political system was estabushed. In America, the Portuguese also recovered the portion of Guiana which they had lost, and occupied French Guiana; the latter, however, was restored to France in 1817. Meantime, the enlightened ministry of the prince-regent carefully attended to the improvement of Brazil. The inquisition was abolished, religious freedom introduced, the evils of slavery diminished, and European artists, manufacturers, merchants and agriculturists encouraged to settle in the country. A large Swiss colony, New Freyberg, was founded in 1819. John took part in the transactions of the congress of Vienna. The revolution of the Spanish colonies in South America (perhaps the refusal of Spain to restore Olivenza) led the court of Rio de Janeiro to occupy Monte-Video, and the left bank of the La Plata. Spain had recourse to the intercession of Austria, Russia, Prussia and Great Britain, whose declaration, directed to the marquis of Aguiar, Portuguese secretary of state for foreign affairs (Paris, March 26, 1817), induced the court of Brazil to evacuate MonteVideo, on condition that Olivenza should be restored. A treaty was then concluded with Buenos Ayres, and the quarrel with Artigas (q. v.) continued till 1820. A conspiracy against the existing government was discovered at Lisbon in 1817, and suppressed by the execution of those engaged in it. After this, the freemasons were persecuted more severely than ever. In consequence of the Portuguese revolution and the convocation of the cortes, 1820, which the monarch recognised as lawful, he returned, in 1821, to Portugal; the crown-prince remained in Brazil. This vast country separated itself entirely from the mother country,where an absolute government was, in the meantime, established. John was incompetent to unite the constitutionalists and royalists. He was himself in danger of falling a victim to the intrigues of the latter, when he was rescued by an English vessel in the Tagus. ortugal and Brazil also assumed a hostile attitude; but, August 29, 1825, by the me

diation of England, John VI concluded a treaty with his son, the emperor Pedro I of Brazil, in which he acknowledged that country as an independent kingdom, wholly separate from Portugal, and his son as emperor, reserving for himself, personally, the title of emperor of Brazil This good-natured monarch, who was incompetent to struggle with the troubles of his age, and the political degeneracy of his nation, died March 10, 1826, having previously appointed his daughter Isabella regent of Portugal. (See Portugal, and the Portuguese Revolution.)

JOHN BAPTIST JOSEPH; arch-duke of Austria, sixth son of the emperor Leopold II, and of the Infanta Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles III of Spain; born Jan. 20, 1782; director-general of the engineers and artillery. This prince is more indebted to himself than to his instructers for the cultivation of his talents. At an early period, he felt an inclination for military science, to the study of which, and also of history, he directed his attention. He had desired in vain, in 1797 and 1799, to learn the art of war under his brother Charles. After the latter had left the command, and Kray had met with several losses, the arch-duke John received, in 1800, the command of a defeated army. His first measures were successful, but, Dec. 3, 1800, the battle of Hohenlinden decided the event of the war. A series of errors cost the Austrians almost all their artillery, and nearly 40,000 men. A second battle, at Salzburg, did not check the victorious Moreau. The arch-duke showed personal valor on these unhappy days, and did every thing to restore the courage of his troops. In September, 1805, when the war was near breaking out, the arch-duke hastened to Tyrol, commissioned to complete, as quickly as possible, the military organization in that place and in the Vorarlberg. He afterwards joined, in Carinthia, the arch-duke Charles, whose plans for saving Vienna and the monarchy were frustrated by the battle of Austerlitz and the ensuing peace. When preparations for war were recommenced, after the peace of Tilsit, the arch-duke labored upon a system of attack and defence for Salzburg and Inner Austria. He prepared, through Hormayr, the famous Tyrolese insurrection. At the breaking out of the war, in 1809, he commanded the army of Inner Austria, destined for Italy and Tyrol. He conquered at Venzone and Pordenone, beat the viceroy Eugène at Sacile, and penetrated as far as the Adige, when the defeat at Ratisbon obliged him to re

treat. On the Piave he again fought a battle with disadvantage, but no important consequences followed. The battle of Tarvis determined him to retreat still farther. The mistakes of Jellachich frustrated the plan of the arch-duke to overcome the enemy in detail, to renew the interrupted communication with Tyrol, to deliver Inner Austria, and, by marching to Vienna, to divide the forces of Napoleon. June 14, he lost the battle of Raab against the viceroy, owing to the Hungarian insurrection. He afterwards visited Italy, where, as a deputy for the emperor, he received homage in Milan. He commanded at the siege of Huningen, in 1815, compelled the city to surrender, and demolished this dangerous fortress. He afterwards went to Paris, visited England, and returned, in 1816, through the Netherlands, to Vienna. JOHN'S, ST., or PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND; an island in the gulf of St. Lawrence, near the north coast of Nova Scotia, to which government it was once annexed, but it now has a separate governor. Lon. 44° 22′ to 46° 32′ W.; lat. 45° 46′ to 47° 10′ N. It is 117 miles long, from north-east to south-west, about 20 in average breadth; population, about 5000; chief towns, Charlotte's Town (the capital), George Town, Prince's Town, &c. The north and south coasts are much indented with bays. It is well watered, the soil generally fertile, and the rivers abound with fish, as salmon, trout and eels. It was taken from the French by the English, in 1745, when it had 10,000 head of black cattle, and several of the fariners raised 12,000 bushels of corn annually. When possessed by the French, it was so much improved as to be called the granary of Canada.

JOHN'S, ST.; a river of New Brunswick, which rises in Canada and the northern part of Maine, waters the north-east part of Maine, flows south-east through New Brunswick, and runs into the bay of Fundy, on the west side of the city of St. John's. It is 350 miles long; the tide flows up about 80 miles; it is navigable for boats 200 miles, and for sloops of 50 tons 80 miles. This river and its branches water a large tract of excellent country, much of which is settled. About 30 miles from its mouth commences a fine level country of rich meadow lands, well lothed with timber and wood, as pine, beech, elm, maple and walnut. The river furnishes a great quantity of salmon, bass and sturgeon; and it is the common route to Quebec. About a mile above the city of St. John's is the only entran e into this

river. It is about 80 or 100 yards wide, 400 yards long, called the falls of the river. It being narrow, and a ridge of rocks running across the bottom of the channel, on which there are not above 17 feet of water, it is not sufficiently spacious to discharge the fresh waters of the river above. The common tides here rising about 20 feet, the waters of the river, at low water, are about 12 feet higher than the waters of the sea. At high water, the waters of the sea are about 5 feet higher than those of he river; so that, at every tide, there are two fallsone outwards and one inwards. The only time of passing with safety, is when the waters of the river and of the sea are level, which is twice in a tide, and continues only about 20 minutes each time.

JOHN'S ST., in New Brunswick. (See New Brunswick.)

JOHN'S, ST., in Newfoundland. (See Newfoundland.) JOHN, ST., CHRISTIANS OF.

bians.)

(See Sa

JOHN, ST., KNights of. The knights of St. John, or hospitalers of St. John, afterwards called knights of Rhodes, and, finally, knights of Malta, were a celebrated order of military religious, established at the commencement of the crusades to the Holy Land. As early as 1048, some merchants from Amalfi, in Naples, established a church at Jerusalem, and built a monastery, which they dedicated to John the Baptist. It was the duty of the monks, who were called brothers of St. John, or hospitalers, to take care of the poor and sick, and, in general, to assist pilgrims. This order, which gradually obtained important possessions, at the beginning of the twelfth century, was regularly instituted as a military order by the principal, Raymund du Puy, retaining all their former laws. Besides the performance of their vows of chastity, obedience and poverty, it was their duty to aid in defending the church against infidels. Raymund also divided the order into three classesknights (who should bear arms), chaplains (regular ecclesiastics) and servitors (serventi d'armi), whose duty it was to take care of the sick and accompany pilgrims. This order long maintained itself against the arms of the Turks and Saracens by union and courage; but, in 1191, it was driven from Palestine. Upon this, the knights conquered Cyprus, but soon lost it again, and established themselves, in 1309, on the island of Rhodes, where they remained upwards of 200 years. This island was vigorously defeuded against Mohammed II, by Pierre d Au

busson (grand master, who died 1503). Driven thence by the sultan. Soliman II (1522), the knights went to Candia, then to Venice, Rome and Viterbo, and especially to Nice, Villa Franca and Syracuse, till Charles V (1530) granted them the islands Malta, Gozzo and Comino, on condition of perpetual war against the infidels and pirates, and the restoration of these islands to Naples, if the order should succeed in recovering Rhodes. From this period, they were commonly called knights of Malta. In 1565, under the command of Lavalette (who died 1568), they repelled a violent attack from Soliman II with great 1 ss. After this, they continued their naval battles with the Turks till modern times, and saved themselves from ruin, in various wars with the Porte, only by their unyielding courage. In 1760, however, they would doubtless have been overpowered but for the interposition of the French. After that, their naval expeditions were seldom any thing more than mere show. The chief of this order, which had great possessions in almost every part of Europe, was called grand master of the holy hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, and guardian of the army of Jesus Christ. He was chosen by vote, and lived at La Valette, in the island of Malta. He was addressed by foreign powers with the title of altezza eminentissima, and received annually 6000 crowns from the treasury of the order, together with all the revenues from the three islands, so that his annual income may be estimated at nearly a million guilders. The secular power was principally in his hands, but even here he was limited by the governors of the various languages, so called, who gave laws, fixed the taxes, &c. The spiritual power (that is, the immediate affairs of the order) was exercised by the chapter, which consisted of eight ballivi conventuali, and in which the grand master presided. The principal offices in the order were held by the pillars (piliers) of the eight languages, into which the knights were divided, according to their respective nations. The languages were those of Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Arragon, Germany, Castile and England. From these languages, the ballivi conventuali above-mentioned were chosen, and their lands were divided into priories, these into bailliages, and these again into commanderies. Of the priories, the German had the preference, and was called the grand priory. It was filled by the grand prior of Germany, or the master of the knights of St. John throughout

Germany, who was a prince of the empire, and resided at Heitersheim, a city and castle in Brisgau, now in the circle of Treisam, in Baden. The master of the knights of St. John was subject to the grand master at Malta. He himself had the jurisdiction over Brandenburg, Hungary and Bohemia. Austria, Bohemia and Moravia formed, besides, a separate grand priory of the German language. The last master of the knights of St. John in Germany, or grand prior of Heitersheim, a count of Reichenbach-Fouxmaigne (or the baron Rink of Baldenstein), by the peace of Presburg and the forma tion of the confederacy of the Rhine, lost all his possessions in West Suabia, which fell into the hands of the grand-duke of Baden. Of the eight languages abovementioned, the English became extinct in the sixteenth century; the three French languages perished during the revolution; those of Castile and Arragon were sepa. rated from Malta at the peace of Amiens, and the Italian and German languages have since been abolished. Thus the order of St. John is to be regarded as extinct, and its restoration is the less to be looked for, as the island of Malta has been formally ceded to England. The Prussian order of knights of St. John, founded by Frederic William III, and which is a royal order, can be considered only as a memorial of an order venerable for its antiquity and its services. (See Prussia.) The knights of St. John observed the rules of the order of St. Augustine. The Protestants, however, were not bound to celibacy. Every member was required to be of good family. The knights who could bring indubitable evidence of noble ancestry were called cavalieri di giustizia (knights by right). Those, on the contrary, who could not prove their nobility, but were, nevertheless, received on account of their merits, were called cavalieri di grazia (knights by favor). The duty of each knight-to take the field at least three times against the infidels, or the pirates of Barbary-was rarely performed in recent times, and, by the peace of Amiens, all hostilities against the Turks were forbidden. In peace, these knights wore a long black mantle; a gold cross of eight points, enamelled white in war, they wore a red jacket or tabard, charged with a full white cross. Only in spiritual concerns was the order subject to the pope : in all temporal ones, they enjoyed unlimited sovereignty. Their naval force, in 1770, consisted of 4 galleys, 3 galeots, 4 ships of 60, and 2 frigates of 36 guns,

with various smaller vessels. When Malta was unexpectedly attacked by Bonaparte, June 8, 1798, the island capitulated without resistance. (See Hompesch, and Malta.) In 1800, the English reduced it by famine, and it has been, ever since, in their hands. At the peace of Amiens (1802), it was stipulated that the island should be restored to the knights, under the guarantee of a neutral power; but as the English continued to entertain apprehensions lest the French would retake Malta, and thus destroy their superiority in the Mediterranean, they continued in possession of it. Dec. 16, 1798, the order had chosen for their grand-master the Russian emperor, Paul I, who declared the capitulation of 1798 an act of treachery, and took the knights of St. John under his protection. This choice met with much opposition, even from the pope himself. After the death of Paul I (Feb. 9, 1805), the pope appointed an Italian (Tommasi) grand-master, and, on his decease, the grand chapter chose Caracciolo. The chief seat of the order had been, hitherto, Catanea in Sicily. In 1826, the pope permitted the chapter and the government to remove their seat to Ferrara. Before the French revolution, the number of knights of this order was estimated at 3000. (For further information, see Malta.)

JOHN BULL, the sportive, collective name of the English people, was first used by dean Swift.-Jonathan, or brother Jonathan, is applied, in the same way, to the people of the U. States.-The Irish Paddy (from Patrick), the Scotch Sawney (from Saunders, which comes from Alexander), are more particularly applied to individuals than to the Irish and Scotch people collectively. Yankee (q. v.), also, signifies a single American, particularly a native of the Eastern States; whilst Uncle Sam―a colloquial and rather low expression, derived from U. S., the abbreviation of United States is used to denote the government of the U. States collectively. John Bull is used by the English themselves to convey the idea of an honest, blunt, but in the main good-natured, character. With foreigners, it is used to express the insular peculiarities and prejudices of the nation, and their inability to accommodate themselves to the circumstances of foreign countries.

JOHN DORY. (See Dory.) JOHN'S FIRE. Among the Romans, the festival of Vesta was celebrated by kindling a fire, with dancing and rejoicings. In the early periods of Christianity, the an

cient pagan rite was perpetuated of setting fire to consecrated herbs, or laying them upon the coals. This ceremony was called John's fire, or the herb fire. Superstitious people believed that the smoke of these herbs would keep off the devil, storms and witches, or preserve from those evils the houses where they were burnt, for the succeeding year.

JOHNES, Thomas; an English gentleman, who, distinguished himself by the cultivation of literature. He was born in 1748, studied at Oxford, made the tour of Europe, and collected a noble library, to which he added a typographical establishment, whence proceeded the works on which his literary reputation is founded. They consist of splendid editions of the chronicles of Froissart and Monstrelet; Joinville's memoirs of St. Louis; the travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquiere in Palestine; and Ste. Palaye's life of Froissart; all translated by himself from the French. He died in April, 1816.

JOHNSON, Samuel, a clergyman, distinguished for his zeal in the cause of civil liberty, was born in 1649. During the time that lord Russel, with his coadjutors, was promoting the bill for excluding the duke of York, he published a tract entitled Julian the Apostate, meant as a refutation of the doctrine of passive obedience by doctor Hickes. For this book he was prosecuted in the court of king's bench, and sentenced to fine and imprisonment. Inability to pay the fine caused him to be confined in the rules of the prison, where he was privately assisted by the benefactions of his political friends, and continued to disperse several pieces against popery. In 1686, when the army was encamped upon Hounslow Heath, he wrote An humble and hearty Address to all the English Protestants in the present Army. For this production he was committed to close custody, tried before the king's bench, and condemned to stand in the pillory in three places, to pay a fine of 500 marks, and to be publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn. Before the execution of this disgraceful sentence, he was deprived of his orders. He bore all these indignities, including the whipping, which was inflicted with great severity, with the firmness and alacrity of a martyr, which he was deridingly called; and, happily, some informality in the process of degradation preserved to him his living. With un broken spirit he continued to employ his pen in the same cause, until the revolution changed his situation. He received a present of £1000, and a pension of £300

per annum, for the life of himself and his son. He continued to write in favor of king William with much strength of reason, but with a degree of acrimony which produced some personal annoyance from opposing partisans, which had little effect upon a man of so determined a spirit. Notwithstanding his attachment to the new government, he freely censured many of its acts, and even contended for annual parliaments. He died in 1703. His works were published in 1710, 1 vol., folio, and re-edited in 1713.

JOHNSON, Samuel, LL. D.; one of the most distinguished English writers of the 18th century. He was born at Lichfield, in Staffordshire, in 1709, in which city his father was a small bookseller. He was the elder of two sons, the younger of whom died in his infancy; and he inherited from his father a robust body and active mind, together with a scrofulous taint, which impaired his sight and hearing, and a strong disposition to morbid melancholy. He also derived from the same source a marked attachment to high church principles, and a decided predilection for the family of Stuart. He received his early education, partly at the freeschool of Lichfield, and partly at Stourbridge, in Worcestershire; and, on returning from school, he remained two years at home. Having acquired reputation from his exercises, particularly of the poetical class, a neighboring gentleman of the name of Corbet offered to maintain him at Oxford as companion to his son. He was accordingly entered of Pembroke college in 1728, being then in his 19th year; but he exhibited no marked attention to his studies in the first instance, and the state of indigence into which he fell by the neglect of the promised assistance, on the part of the family by whose advice he was sent to Oxford, produced a degree of mental anxiety, which he is said to have attempted to conceal by affected frolic and turbulence. Still he acquired credit by occasional poetical compositions in the Latin language; but, after all, left Oxford, after a residence of three years, without taking a degree. About this time, according to his own account, he received a strong religious impression from the perusal of Law's Serious Call to a devout and holy Life. Soon after his return to Lichfield. his father dying in very narrow circumstances, he was constrained to accept the situation of usher at the grammarschool of Market Bosworth. This situation his impatience under the haughty treatment of the principal soon induced

him to quit; and he passed some time as a guest with a medical schoolfellow, settled at Birmingham. Here he wrote essays for one of the journals, and translated from the French father Lobo's Travels in Abyssinia. Returning to Lichfield, he published proposals for the republication of the poems of Politian, with a life, and a history of modern Latin poetry, which prospectus was but little attended to. Disappointed in this scheme, he offered his services to Cave, as a contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine, which, however, was but a slight step towards a maintenance; and, in 1735, he sought to improve his condition by a marriage with Mrs. Porter, the widow of a mercer. Her fortune of £800 was a dowry of some moment to a suitor in the situation of Johnson; and the fact of her being twice his own age, and possessed of no pretension to personal attraction, renders his subsequent description of this union as a "love match on both sides" the more extraordinary. He now took a large house at Edial, with a view to take pupils and boarders, but the plan did not succeed; and, after a year's trial, he resolved to seek his fortune in London, in company with one of his few pupils, the celebrated David Garrick. În March, 1737, the two adventurers accordingly arrived in the metropolis, Johnson with his unfinished tragedy of Irene in his pocket, and with little to depend upon but his slender engagement with Cave. At this time he became acquainted with the reckless and unfortunate Savage, and in some respects his personal conduct was unfavorably affected by the intimacy; but from irregularity of this nature he was soon recovered by his deeply-grounded religious and moral principles. His first literary production, which attracted notice in the metropolis, was his London, a Poen, in imitation of the third satire of Juvenal. He soon after made an attempt to obtain a Dublin degree of M.A., through a recommendation to Swift, in order to obtain the mastership of a free grammarschool in Leicestershire, but could not succeed. Failing in this attempt, his engagement in the Gentleman's Magazine led to a new exercise of his powers in the composition of parliamentary debates, which, being then deemed a breach of privilege, were published under the fiction of Debates in the Senate of Lilliput. The extraordinary eloquence displayed in these productions was almost exclusively the product of his own invention; but it is probable that he adhered more faithfully