ly and clan; e. g. successio and tutela agnatorum), jus legitimi dominii (the privilege of lawful property), jus connubiorum (privilege of lawful marriage), jus patrium (unlimited power over the persons and property of real or adopted children). Heineccius and others mention only two jura Quiri., and, besides then, jus civitatis or civitas Romana. Conradi (De Jure Quir. a Civitate Romana non diverso, Helmstedt, 1742, 4to.) is of a different opinion. Still different is the opinion of Cramer (De Juris Quiri. et Civitatis Discrimine, Kiel, 1803, 4to.). At all events, the jus civitatis was of a more limited character than the jus Quiritium. Thus newly admitted citizens received it.

JUSSIEU, Antony and Bernard, de; two brothers, born at Lyons, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, eminent as physicians and botanists. Antony made a botanical tour, and brought from Spain a large collection of plants. After this, he wrote upon subjects connected with natural history and medicine, and died . in 1758, in the 72d year of his age, much lamented, on account of his philanthropy. Bernard, born in 1699, was appointed professor of botany in the royal botanical garden. We are indebted to him for a new edition, in two volumes, 12mo., of Tournefort's History of Plants in the Neighborhood of Paris (Histoire des Plantes qui naissent aux Environs de Paris), published in 1725. Jussieu's scholars used to bring him flowers which they had mutilated or compounded with others, for the purpose of testing his knowledge, and he always recognised them immediately. Some of them having made the same experiment on Linnæus, he said, "God or your teacher (Jussieu) can alone answer your questions." Jussieu, after having been a long time employed upon a systematic division of the vegetable kingdom, died in 1777, aged 79. Cuvier, in a biographical memoir on Richard, calls Bernard de Jussieu "the most modest, and, perhaps, the most profound botanist of the eighteenth century, who, although he scarcely published any thing, is, nevertheless, the inspiring genius of modern botanists."-Antony Laurence Jussieu, nephew of Bernard, born at Lyons, in 1748, physician, member of the academy of sciences at Paris, and of the royal medical school, made a report, in 1804. on the results of captain Baudin's voyage to New Holland. In the anatomy of plants, he has distinguished himself by having made known the discovery of a

substance enclosed in the kernel, called by him perisperma.

JUSTICE OF THE PEACE. The word

justice is applied to judicial magistrates; as justices of such a court, and, in the English laws, justices of the forest, hundred, of the laborers, &c.; and hence the appellation justice of the peace-that is, a judicial magistrate intrusted with the conservation of the peace. A great part of the civil officers are, in fact, the conservators of the peace, as their duty is to prevent or punish breaches of the peace. Thus the judges, grand-jurymen, justices of the peace, mayors and aldermen of municipal corporations, sheriffs, coroners, constables, watchmen, and all officers of the police, are instituted for the purpose of preventing, in different ways, crimes and disturbances of the peace of the community, or for arresting, trying and punishing the violators of the laws and good order of society. In England and the U. States, the justice of the pence, though not high in rank, is an officer of great importance, as the first judicial proceedings are had before him in regard to arresting persons accused of grave offences; and his jurisdiction extends to trial and adjudication for small offences. In case of the commission of a crime or a breach of the peace, a complaint is made to one of these magistrates. If he is satisfied with the evidence of a commission of some offence, the cognizance of which belongs to him, either for the purpose of arresting, or for trying the party accused, he issues a warrant directed to a consta ble, or other executive officer designated by the law for this purpose, ordering the person complained of to be brought before him, and he thereupon tries the party, if the offence be within his jurisdiction, and acquits him or awards punishment. If the offence charged be of a graver character the adjudication upon which is not within the justice's jurisdiction, the question then is, whether the party complained of is to be imprisoned, or required to give bonds to await his trial before the tribunal having jurisdiction, or is to be discharged; and on these questions the justice decides according to his view of the law and the facts. In England, there are some officers, as the master of the rolls, some municipal authorities, &c., who are justices of the peace by prescription, in virtue of their other office; but, in general, the appointment is by commission; and, in England, when a new commission issues to justices in a certain county, this supersedes former commissions for the same county, of

course. In the U. States, the office is held only by special appointment, and the tenure is different in different states, the office having been held, in one state at least, during good behavior; but the commission is more usually for seven years, or some other specific limited period. These magistrates have usually also a civil jurisdiction of suits for debts, on promises, or for trespasses (where the title to real estate does not come in question, and with some other exceptions), to an amount varying, in the different states, from $13.33 to $100. In some states, a party may appeal from the decision of the justice to a higher tribunal, whatever may be the amount in question, in a civil suit, and whatever may be the judgment. In other states, no appeal is allowed, except in case of an amount in question exceeding four dollars, or some other certain, but always inconsiderable sum. So an appeal is usually allowed to the accused party in a criminal prosecution before a justice of the peace, in case of the judgment being for a penalty over a certain specified and small amount, or an imprisonment over a certain number of days. It is evidently of the greatest importance to the peace and good order of a community, that the justices should be discreet, honest and intelligent. (For the French justices, see Peace, Justices of the.) JUSTIN, surnamed the Martyr; one of the earliest and most learned writers of the Christian church. He was the son of Priscus, a Greek, and was born at Flavia Neapolis, anciently called Sichem, a city of Samaria, in Palestine, towards the close of the first century. He was educated in the pagan_religion, and, after studying in Egypt, became a Platonist, until, in the year 132, he was led, by the instructions of a zealous and able Christian, to embrace the religion of the gospel. He subsequently went to Rome, in the beginning of the reign of Antoninus Pius, and drew up his first Apology for the Christians, then under a severe persecution, in which he shows the cruelty and injustice of the proceedings against them. He was also equally zealous in opposing alleged heretics, and particularly Marcion, against whom he wrote and published a book. He not long after visited the East, and, at Ephesus, had a conference with Trypho, a learned Jew, to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, an account of which conference he gives in his Dialogue with Trypho. On his return to Rome, he had frequent disputes with Crescens, a Cynic philosopher, in

consequence of whose calumnies, he published his second Apology, which seems to have been presented to the emperor Marcus Aurelius, in 162. Crescens preferred against him a formal charge of impiety for neglecting the pagan rites, and he was condemned to be scourged, and then beheaded, which sentence was put into execution, in 164, in the 74th or 75th year of his age. Justin Martyr is spoken of in high terms of praise by the ancient Christian writers, and was certainly a zealous and aple advocate of Christianity, but mixed up too much of his early Platonism with its doctrines. The best editions of his works are those of Maran (Paris, 1742, folio), and of Oberthur (Würtzburg, 1777, 3 vols., 8vo.).

JUSTIN; a Latin historian, who probably lived at Rome, in the second or third century. He made an epitome of the history of Trogus Pompeius, a native of Gaul, who lived in the time of Augustus, and whose works, in 44 books, contain a history of the world, from the earliest ages to his own time. His history of Macedonia was particularly complete. To judge from the epitome (for the original is lost), there were many errors in the work, especially in the Jewish history; but this epitome, which corresponds to the original in its title and arrangement, having compressed into a brief space so much of the important matter of the old histories, has obtained a considerable reputation, and even now is often used in schools. The style is, on the whole, elegant and agreeable, but it is destitute of that noble simplicity and classical correctness which distinguish the work of a master. The best editions are those of Grævius (variorum), Hearne (Oxford, 1705), Fischer (Leipsic, 1757), and Wetzel (Leiguitz, 1806). (See Heeren, De Trogi P. Fontibus, in Comm. Soc. Gott. xv.)

JUSTINIAN I, surnamed the Great, nephew of Justin I, emperor of the East, celebrated as a lawgiver, was born in 483, of an obscure family. He shared the fortunes of his uncle, who, from a common Thracian peasant, was raised to the imperial throne. While consul (521), he exhibited splendid games to the people. He likewise flattered the senate, and sought their favor; in consequence of which that body conferred on him the title of nobilissimus. His uncle, infirm from age, and suffering from a wound, admitted him to a share of his power. Yet it was not till after his death, about August 1, 527, that Justinian was pro

claimed emperor. He now married Theodora, whom he raised from the condition of an actress and a public prostitute to the throne of the Cæsars. She acquired an absolute mastery over her husband. Under his reign, the parties of the circus contended with great animosity, and, under the names of the Greens and the Blues, occasioned many bloody scenes in Constantinople. The violent means which Justinian used to quell the tumult only served to increase it, and a conflagration, which broke out in consequence, laid the greatest part of Constantinople, and his own most beautiful buildings, in ashes. Justinian's own life was in peril. After the turbulence of these parties was extinguished by streams of blood, and a multitude of executions, Justinian finished the war with the Isaurians, and his general, Belisarius, in 523 and 529, obtained three glorious victories over the Persians. This great general destroyed, in 534, the empire of the Vandals in Africa, and carried Gelimer, their king, a prisoner to Constantinople. Spain and Sicily were reconquered, and the Ostrogoths, who possessed Italy, were vanquished. In 536, Belisarius made his entry into Rome, and the eunuch Narses, another of Justinian's generals, in 553, put an end to the dominion of the Ostrogoths in Italy. These successes restored to the Roman empire a part of its former vast possessions. Justinian now turned his attention to the laws. He commissioned 10 learned civilians to form a new code from his own laws and those of his predecessors. To this code Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body of civil law (corpus juris civilis). (See Corpus Juris, and Tribonianus.) Justinian was also intent upon building new cities, and upon fortifying others, and adorning them with new edifices; but he was particularly desirous of establishing peace in religious matters. Amongst other churches, he rebuilt that of St. Sophia at Constantinople, which had been burnt in the quarrel of the Greens and Blues. It is esteemed a masterpiece of architecture. The altar in it was made entirely of gold and silver, and adorned with a vast numDer and variety of precious stones. This church, a part of which is now standing, and is used by the Turks as a mosque, was so inagnificent, that Justinian, when, on the day of its dedication, he beheld it For the first time, in its full splendor, cried out for joy, "To God alone be the glory!

I have outdone thee, Solomon!" But was his unhappy fortune, as it was that of the Jewish king, to outlive himself. Towards the end of his life, he became avaricious, without losing his love of splendor, suspicious and cruel. He oppressed the people with taxes, and lent a willing ear to every accusation. (For his treatment of Belisarius, see Belisarius.) He suffered his own servants to commit the most flagrant crimes unpunished. He died in 565, in the 83d year of his age, after a reign of 38 years. His love of the monks, of saints, and of theological questions, did not protect him from the censure of the divines, who esteemed him a heretic. Much that was great and glorious was accomplished during his reign, but he had little share in it.

JUSTITIA (justice); called, by the Greeks, Astræa, Themis, Dike. With the Romans, this goddess was an abstract rather than a personal deity. She is frequently represented upon coins as a maiden, with a fillet or a diadem; sometimes with a sword and scales; sometimes with a cup in one hand and a sceptre in the other.

JUTLAND; a province in Denmark, bounded on all sides by the sea, except towards the south, where it is bounded by Sleswick. It is about 180 miles in length, and from 70 to 90 in breadth, and, of all the territories belonging to Denmark Proper, is the largest, and yields the greatest revenue. Square miles, 9500; population, 440,000. It is divided into four bishoprics-Aalborg, Wiborg, Aarhuus and Ripen. The country is indented by bays and inlets, but has few rivers and none large. The north coast is ar immense range of sand-banks, dangerous to navigation. The country is generally low, having no mountains. On the east coast there are extensive forests of oak, fir, birch, &c.; on the west are hardly any species of trees but alder and willow. The kind of grain. most cultivated is rye, great quantities of which are exported to Norway. The pastures are extensive and rich; horses and cattle numerous. Iron, marble and limestone are found; also excellent turf. Most of the inhabitants speak Danish; the gentry also German. The religion is Lutheran. Agriculture and education are in rather a backward state. (See Denmark.)

The Peninsula of Jutland, anciently called Cimbrica, or Chersonesus Cimbrica, includes both the province of Jutland and the duchy or Sieswick in the scul

JUVENAL. Decinus lun. Jurgvlig a

native of Aquinum in the Volscian territory, flourished at Rome in the latter half of the first century. He studied rhetoric for his amusement, but afterwards devoted himself to poetry, especially satire. Having severely lashed the favorite pantomime Paris in his seventh satire, he was appointed by Domitian, under pretence of honor, prefect of a cohort (præfectus cohortis) in the most distant part of Egypt. Under Trajan, he returned to Rome, in the 82d year of his age. He was one of the most powerful and caustic of the Roman satirists. He wrote 16 satires (the genuineness of the last, however, is doubtful), in which he chastises the follies and vices of his times. His style is not so elegant, nor his disposition so mild and humorous, as that of Horace, nor yet so gloomy and stern as that of Persius, and he often betrays the rhetorician. The best editions are those of Henninius (Utrecht, 1685, 4to.; Leyden, 1695, 4to.), and the latest by Ruperti (Leipsic, 1801, 2 volumes), and abridged (Göttingen, 1804, 2 volumes). Gifford's translation, with a preface and notes, is very valuable. Johnson's imitations of the third and tenth satires are deservedly celebrated.

JUVENCUS, Caius Vettius Aquilinus; presbyter in Spain; a Latin poet who flourished about 325 A. D., in Spain. He translated the history of Christ, chiefly after Matthew, in hexameters (Historia evangelica Lib. iv.). A. R. Gebser published a critical edition of Juvencus in Jena (1827, 2 volumes), which makes, at the same time, the beginning of a Bibliotheca Latina Poetarum veterum Christianorum. In this edition an enumeration of all other editions is to be found. Juvencus also turned the book of Genesis into hexameters (in Martini's Nova Collect. vet. Moniment. vol. iv, page 15 seq.).

JUVENTA (Juventas with the Romans); the goddess of youth, but not to be confounded with Hebe; for she had not an individual, but only an abstract existence. She had a chapel near the capitol, and a festival established in honor of her was celebrated by the youth. She is repre

sented upon coins holding a censer in her left hand, and with her right strewing incense upon a tripod, because the youth, when they came to consecrate the first growth of their beards, brought an offer. ing of incense.

JUXON, William, bishop of London, and subsequently archbishop of Canterbury, a prelate of distinguished mildness, learning and piety, was born in the city of Chichester in 1582, and educated at Oxford. The law appears to have been his original destination. The friendship he contracted with his fellow collegian Laud, might have induced him to take orders. In 1621, he was made president of St. John's college, Oxford, and, by the continued patronage of his friend, dean of Worcester (1627), clerk to the royal closet (1632), bishop of Hereford (1633), and that of London before the expiration of the same year. In 1635, he was appointed lord high treasurer of England. The nomination of a churchman to this dignified and responsible situation excited a strong sensation among the puritanical party, who made it the ground of severe invective against the government and primate; but, on his resignation of the office, after having held it something less than six years, the integrity and ability with which he had discharged its various duties, were admitted on all hands. During the whole progress of the unhappy contest which followed, he maintained an unshaken fidelity to the king, whom he attended during his imprisonment in the Isle of Wight, and on the scaffold, on which occasion he received from the hand of Charles, the moment previous to his execution, his diamond George, with directions to forward it to his son. After the king's death, the parliament threw him into confinement for contumacy in refusing to disclose the particulars of his conversation with the king; but he was soon released, and continued to live in privacy until the restoration. He was then called again into public life, and was raised to the primacy. He survived his elevation little more than two years, dying June 1, 1663.