and, as the building of St. Peter's church had exhausted his finances, he began the sale of indulgences in Germany, without waiting for the jubilee of 1525, in conJunction with the elector of Mentz, who was to receive half the profit; and the latter found an excellent agent for the sale in Tetzel. This flagrant abuse inflamed the zeal of Luther, and the Protestant theologians have always found indulgences one of the most vulnerable points of the Roman Catholic system; and even the Catholic states of Germany represented to the emperor, in 1530, that he ought to prevail upon the pope, to omit sending any more letters of indulgence to Germany, lest the whole Catholic religion should become an object of scorn and mockery. Nevertheless, the right to remit sins was received, in the council of Trent, among the articles of faith. (We shall now proceed to give the Catholic views, as taken from the article Indulgence, written by a Catholic, in the German ConversationsLexicon.) The penances of the ancient church (see Penance) were never so strictly binding as to preclude the presbyters from relaxing them in some degree, in particular instances, where their object seemed more easily attained in some other way. But this never was done, except in single cases, and after the circumstances of the petitioners had been closely examined; nor was the whole punishment ever remitted, but merely a part of it, according as the case of the individual required, and his repentance justified it. The council of Nice, in their 12th canon, require, for such a dispensation, proof of true repentance. In the 11th century, another kind of indulgences was introduced, -absolution. This was granted to those who undertook some difficult enterprise for the benefit of the church. This was usually bearing arms in her cause, of which the crusades are the most famous example. In the council of Clermont (1095-1096), it was decreed (canon 12), that every one, who, actuated solely by devout zeal, and not by love of glory or by avarice, went on the expedition to Jerusalem for the deliverance of the holy sepulchre, should receive a full remission of his sins. In later tines, this indulgence was extended to those who were not able to go themselves, and sent a champion in their stead. By degrees, the exemption was extended still farther, and soon plenary and partial indulgences were granted to those who gave alms for effecting some good work (e. g., the restoration of a church, &c.), or performed some prescrib

ed labor of piety (the visiting of a church, for instance) at the time of the jubilee, which was established by Boniface VIII, in 1300. This gave the death-blow to the public penance of the church. Considerable abuses, however, stole into the system of indulgences, and the scandal became very great. Under pretext of alms for the benefit of good works, indulgences were made the means of indirectly taxing the whole of Christendoin. It was proposed several times in the diets of the German empire (e. g., at Nuremberg, in 1466), to make use of them for supplying the expenses of the war against the Turks The popes, bishops and civil rulers usually divided the proceeds, though the latter sometimes appropriated them entirely; as, for instance, in 1500, when the government of the empire took possession of the money collected for the pope on the occasion of the jubilee, and allowed only a third part to the legate of the pope, for his subsistence. Under such circumstances, when holy institutions were abused for vile gain, it was natural that wrong notions respecting indulgences and their power, should spring up among the people, and be spread by the preachers employed to distribute them. (See Tetzel.) It is a well known fact, that the indulgences proclaimed by Leo X, gave the first spring to the reformation. It was the object of the fathers assembled at Trent, to make a public disavowal of the erroneous doctrines which had been preached by individuals respecting indulgences, that they might not appear to be sanctioned by the church. The council first required (in sess. 24, cap. 8, De Reformatione), the restoration of public penance, in the following words: "The holy apostle (Paul to Timothy) ordains, that those who sin publicly, should be publicly rebuked. If, therefore, a crime has been committed publicly, and in the sight of many, so as not to leave any doubt of its giving a bad example to others, a public penance is to be imposed on the guilty person, suited to the crime, that the sight of his repentance may recall those to the right way, whom his example has led astray. The bishop may, however, substitute a private for the public penance, if he thinks it more suita ble." Respecting absolution itself, the church has established no dogma, because such dogmas are expressed only in the canones, of which there exist none on this subject. She has given only a decree, and this in her last session, which literally says: Since the power of conferring indulgences has been given to the church

by Christ, and she has exercised it from the earliest times, the holy council teaches and ordains, that this usage, so beneficial to Christians, and confirmed by the authority of many holy councils, is to be retained in the church; and she inflicts the anathema upon such as either declare indulgences unnecessary, or dispute the power of the church to grant them. It is her wish, however, that in the grant of indulgences, according to the custom long existing in the church, proper limits should be observed, lest the discipline of the church become injuriously relaxed. But as the church desires that the abuses which have crept in, and have given occasion to heretical preachers to heap reproach upon this venerable usage, should be corrected, she ordains by the present decree, that the shameful bartering of indulgences for money, which has been so fruitful a source of abuse, shall be entirely abolished. As the corruptions which have sprung from superstition, ignorance, irreverence, or from any other causes, cannot here be enumerated and individually censured, on account of the variety of the kinds prevailing in different places and provinces, the synod commands every bishop to search out with diligence the abuses of his own church, and to lay them before the first provincial synod, that they may be branded as errors by the judgment of the other bishops, and be submitted to the authority of the supreme bishop at Rome, whose wisdom will provide for the universal good of the church, that the sacred indulgences may in future be distributed with purity and holiness. The selling of indulgences has accordingly ceased. In regard to the absolution still practised in the church (continues the Catholic writer), the spirit of the church is the same as in ancient times. The old discipline of penance never has been for mally abolished. On the contrary, the principle has rather been confirmed by the council of Trent, as has just been shown. The church still commissions her servants to impose penances upon sinners, in proportion to their guilt,— heavier penances than the ordinary ones. Why, then (he asks), should she not be authorized to remit part of the sentence, if the penitent is found worthy of favor? Whether such remission be deserved by the penitent, is to be judged by those ministers of the church who are in immediate intercourse with them. To make absolution effectual, Bellarmin requires that the end attained should be more agreeable to God than the performance of the

-even

penance remitted. The labor itself should 'be in proportion to its aim. We have seen that there exists no dogma on absolution; it is therefore by no means a doctrine of the church, but it is left to the private views of the individuals, whether and how far the absolution and the idea of purgatory (see Purgatory), are connected with each other. It is falsely believed by many Protestants, that absolution is esteemed by the Catholic church equivalent to conversion, and as effectual to remit the punishment of sins. Every popular catechism proves the contrary.

INDUS, or SINDH*; a large river in the western part of Hindoostan, rising on the north of the Himalaya mountains; it flows first north-west, then west, penetrates the chain of mountains in the 36th parallel then takes a winding course to the south, and empties by several mouths into the sea of Arabia, between lat. 23° 20′ and 24° 40′ N. Its chief tributaries are from the east; they were known to the Greeks. One of them is the Behât or Jelam (Hydaspes), from Cashmere; it joins the Chenab (Acesines), which also receives the Ravy (Hydraotes); below the confluence of the Chenab is that of the Kirah (Hyphasis), formed by the junction of the Setledje or Satadrou (Hesidrus) and the Beyah. The country traversed by the Indus and its tributaries is called the Penjab or Punjab. The water of the Indus is wholesome, and resembles that of the Ganges. Its course, including its windings, is estimated at 1700 miles, and is generally W. of S. The Delta of the Indus is about 150 miles in length along the coast, and 115 in depth. The river is navigable, for vessels of 200 tons, to the province of Lahore, a distance of 760 ge- . ographical miles. From Attack to the Delta, a distance of about 800 miles, its breadth is generally about a mile, and its depth from two to five fathoms. The tide sets in with great violence. Owing to the barbarous manners of the tribes which inhabit its banks, little commerce takes place on this river. The bed of the Indus is sand, with a small quantity of mud.

INES DE CASTRO. Pedro, son of Alphonso IV, king of Portugal, after the death of his wife Constantia (1344), secretly married his mistress, Ines de Castro, who was descended from the roya. line of Castile, from which Pedro was

Greek, which borrowed it from the Persian. The The name is very ancient. Indus is from the Persians seem to have derived it from the Indian Sind'hu, ocean.

also descended on his mother's side. As he steadily rejected all propositions for a new marriage, his secret was suspected, and the envious rivals of the beautiful Ines were fearful that her brothers and family would gain a complete ascendency over the future king. The old king was easily blinded by the intrigues of his artful counsellors, Diego Lopez Pacheco, Pedro Coelho and Alvarez Gonsalvez. They persuaded him that this marriage would be prejudicial to the interests of his young grand-son Ferdinand (the son of Pedro by his de. cased wife). Alphonso asked his son if he was married to Ines. Pedro dared not confess the truth to his father, much less would he comply with the command of the king, to renounce his mistress and unite himself to another. Alphonso again consulted his favorites, and it was resolved to put the unhappy Ines to death. The queen Beatrice, mother of the Infant, obtained intelligence of this cruel design, and gave her son notice of it. But Pedro neglected not only this information, but even the warning of the archbishop of Braga, as a rumor intended merely to terrify him. The first time that Pedro left Ines, to be absent several days, on a hunting expedition, the king hastened to Coimbra, where she was living in the convent of St. Clara with her children. The arrival of Alphonso filled the unhappy lady with terror; but, suppressing her feelings, she appeared before the king, threw herself with her children at his feet, and begged for mercy with tears. Alphonso, softened by this sight, had not the heart to perpetrate the intended crime. But after he had retired, his evil counsellors succeeded in obliterating the impression which had been made on him, and obtained from him permission to commit the murder which had been resolved on. It was executed that very hour; Ines expired under the daggers of her enemies. She was buried in the convent where she was murdered (1355). Pe/dro, frantic with grief and rage, took arms against his father, but the queen and the archbishop of Braga succeeded in reconciling the father and son. Pedro obtained many privileges; in return for which, he promised, on oath, not to take vengeance on the murderers. Two years after, king Alphonso died; the three assassins had already left the kingdom, by his advice, and taken refuge in Castile, where Peter the Cruel then reigned, whose tyranny had driven some noble Castilians into Portugal. Pedro agreed to exchange these fugitives for the murderers of Ines. Hav

ing delivered them to their master, he re ceived, in return, the persons of Pedro Coelho and Alvarez Gonsalvez; the third, Pacheco, escaped to Arragon. The two were then tortured in the presence of the king, in order to make them disclose their accomplices; their hearts were torn out. their bodies burnt, and their ashes scattered to the winds (1360). Two years after, he assembled the chief men of the kingdom, at Cataneda, and solemniy declared on oath, that, after the death of his wife Constantia, he had obtained the cousent of the pope to his union with Ines de Castro, and that he had been married to her in the presence of the archbishop of Guarda and of an officer of his court, Stephen Lobato. He then went to Coimbra. The archbishop and Lobato confirmed the assertions of the king; and the papal document, to which the king referred, was publicly exhibited. The king caused the body of his beloved Ines to be disinterred, and placed on a throne, adorned with the diadem and royal robes, and required all the nobility of the kingdom to approach and kiss the hem of her garment, rendering her when dead that homage which she had not received in her life. The body was then carried in a funeral car to Alcobaça. The king, the bishops, the nobles and knights of the kingdom, followed the carriage on foot; and the whole distance, from Coimbra to Alcobaça, was lined on both sides by many thousands of people, bearing burning torches. In Alcobaça, a splendid monument of white marble was erected, on which was placed her statue, with a royal crown on her head. The history of the unhappy Ines has furnished many poets, of different nations, with materials for tragedies,-Lamothe, count von Soden &c.; but the Portuguese muse has immortalized her through the lips of Camoens, in whose celebrated Lusiade, the history of her love is one of the finest episodes.

INFALLIBILITY; exemption from the possibility of error. God, of course, is infallible, because the idea of divinity excludes that of error; Christ was infallible, and, according to the belief of the Greek and Catholic church, and of most Protestant sects, the apostles were also infallible, after the descent of the Holy Ghost. Here, however, the Protestants and Catholics divide. The latter, founding their creed on tradition (q. v.) as well as on the Bible, maintain that the tradition, that is, the general doctrine and belief, handed down from age to age, and taught by the great

body of the pastors, is above the possibility of error; consequently, also, the councils are infallible, because the councils, according to a Catholic writer, "do not make truths or dogmas, as some Protestants maintain, but merely express the belief of the church on certain points in question:" the truth pronounced, therefore, always existed, but had not been previously declared by the church. From several passages in the Bible, the Catholic infers that the above-mentioned tradition and the councils are under the continual guidance and influence of the Holy Ghost: hence the formula so often repeated by the council of Trent, the last general council of the Catholic church-"the holy council lawfully assembled under the guidance of the Holy Ghost." It is clear, that, if the councils are infallible, it is of the utmost importance for the Catholic to know what are lawful councils. This is a point which, as may be easily conceived, has created great discussions in the Catholic church, because the popes claimed the sole right to convoke councils. (See Council.) So far all Roman Catholics agree respecting infallibility, namely, that Christ, the apostles, the body of the pastors, the traditions of the church, and the councils, are infallible; but they disagree respecting the infallibility of the pope. The ultramontane theologians maintain that the pope is infallible, whenever he pronounces dogmatically on a point of doctrine, to settle the faith of the whole Catholic church. These theologians are therefore called infallibleists. The theologians of the Gallican church do not admit this infallibility. The assembly of the French clergy, in 1682, laid down the maxim, "that in questions of faith, the sovereign pontiff has the chief part, and that his decrees concern the whole church; but that his judgment is not irreformable, until it be confirmed by the acquiescence of the church." Bossuet, in his Defensio Declarat. Cleri Gallic., 2d part, 1. 12 seq. has treated this point at length. He maintains, that the pope is by no means infallible, and that a papal decision is not to be considered infallible until the church acquiesces in it, which, he admits, may be done, in general, silently.-In politics, the word infallible is used in a different sense. The position that any political person, or body, is infallible, only means, that there is no appeal from such person or body. When the English public law declares that the king can do no wrong, every one knows that this is merely a political fiction. But the genuine supporters of di

vine right believe in a somewhat more real political infallibility of kings.

INFANT, in law. By the English, and generally by the American, and so by the French law, persons come to majority at the age of twenty-one years, until which time they are called in law infunts, and are under guardianship or tutelage. The laws of some of the U. States, however, inake a distinction between males and females, the age of eighteen being that of najority in females. Infants cannot, in general, bind themselves by contracts, as they are supposed not to have sufficient discretion for this purpose. But this is their privilege, and their contracts are accordingly held in general not to be void, but only voidable at their election; and they may elect to avoid their contracts during their minority, but they cannot confirm them so as to be bound by them, until their majority. Infants may possess property, but it must be under the management and control of a guardian. They have not the right of citizens as to voting, and discharging other political functions. But in regard to crimes and punishments, and trespasses and private wrongs, their conduct is regulated by the same laws as that of the other members of the community, in case of their being of sufficient age and discretion to understand their duties and obligations. And for this purpose no general limit can be assigned, as some children are much more intelligent than others of the same age; and it will again depend, in some degree, upon the nature of the offence committed, or the wrong done, whether a child of any given age can be considered legally guilty of it, since some offences and wrongs can be more easily understood to be such than others. The law, in general, has a tender regard to youth, and does not permit them to be convicted and punished for offences and trespasses, unless it appears clearly that they have sufficient knowledge and discretion to distinguish them to be such.-There are exceptions to the incapacities of minors as to contracting, and these exceptions are made for their benefit. Thus an infant not sufficiently furnished with necessary clothes, food or instruction, by his parent or guardian, and not being under the immediate superintendence of the parent or guardian, may make a valid contract, in respect to those subjects, and such contract may be enforced against him. Another exception to the general incapacity of infants to contract, relates to the contract of mai riage, which, by the law of England and

the U. States, may be made by a male at the age of fourteen, and by a female at that of twelve. The French code fixes the age for making a valid marriage contract, in the case of the male, at eighteen, and in that of the female at fifteen. And as the law gives validity to the princ pal contract, the prevalent doctrine, though subject to some doubt as to the extent of its application, is, that all contracts collateral and incidental to that of marriage, such as making marriage settlements by the husband, and accepting them instead of dower by the wife, are equally binding on both of the parties, being of age to contract marriage, and, accordingly, not subject to be revoked either before or after coming to the age of majority. If, however, one party be under the age at which a contract of marriage may be made, he or she may, on arriving at such age, either ratify or annul any such contract previously made. The jurisdiction in respect to infants is generally vested in either probate or orphans' courts, in the U. States. These courts appoint guardians to take charge of the property of infants, and, in case of the decease of the father, to take charge of their persons; but, during the life of the father, he has the guardianship and control of the persons of his sons until they are twentyone years of age, and of his daughters until they are either eighteen or twentyone. At a certain age, however, that is, twelve or fourteen, the child, in case of the decease of the father, may choose his own guardian, who, being approved by the proper judge, is appointed accordingly. (See Infante.)

INFANT SCHOOLS. (See Schools.)

INFANTADO, duke of, a Spanish grandee of the first class, born 1773, was educated in France, under the eye of his mother, a princess of Salm-Salm. In the war of 1793, he raised a regiment in Catalonia at his own expense. The prince of the Asturias formed an intimate union with him, because the duke showed an aversion to Godoy, the king's favorite. Godoy therefore obtained an order, in 1806, for the duke to leave Madrid. He became, in consequence (1807), still more intimately connected with the prince (see Ferdinand VII), who appointed him, in case of the death of the king, captain-general of New Castile. This appointment involved him in the affair of the Escurial; the attorneygeneral of the king demanded sentence of death against the duke and Escoiquiz; out the popular favor towards him, and

the intercession of the French ambassador Beauharnais, prevented the sentence. In 1808, the duke accompanied Ferdinand VII to Bayonne. July 7, 1808, he signed the constitution prepared by Napoleon, at Bayonne, for Spain, and became colonel in the guards of king Joseph; but he soon after resigned his post, and summon. ed the nation to arm against the French, and was consequently denounced as a traitor by Napoleon, Nov. 12, 1808. In 1809, he commanded a Spanish division, but was twice defeated by Sebastiani; and, notwithstanding his courage, he lost the confidence of the supreme junta, who deprived him of his command. He then retired to Seville. In 1811, the cortes appointed him president of the council of Spain and the Indies, and ambassador extraordinary to England. In June, 1812, he returned to Cadiz. From hence he went to Madrid, after the French had been driven from that capital, in 1813, but was obliged to withdraw from that city, by the command of the junta, as one of the chiefs of the Servile party (los serviles). Ferdinand VII, however, recalled the duke, made him president of the council of Castile, and treated him with distinguished favor. On the establishment of the constitution in 1820, he resigned his place, and retired to his estate near Madrid, but was banished to Majorca. In 1823, he was appointed president of the regency which was established by the French at Madrid during the war. In August, he went with Victor Saez to Puerto Santa Maria, to resign the govern ment into the hands of the king, who made him a member of the council of state. The duke formed the plan for the organization of the regiments of guards, and obtained for the king (1824) the sum of 100,000 florins, for his journey to Aranjuez. In October, 1825, he succeeded Zea as first minister, and changed Zea's deliberative junta into a council of state; but the machine of state, which the apostolic party checked in its course, could not be put effectually in motion. The duke contributed 500,000 francs, the amount of his income for one year, to the necessities of the state, and in October, 1826, obtained his discharge.

INFANTE, OF INFANT (a word derived from the Latin, signifying child); the title given, particularly in Spain and Portugal, to the princes of the royal house, the eldest being also called el principe. The princesses at these courts are called infanta, the eldest also la princesa.