under this term 'creeping things' are mentioned Ps 10580); Ezk 479 every living soul that swarmeth' Gn 124. 25 (as created, together with cattle,' and (viz. in a river); and fig., of animals generally, beasts of the earth' [i.e. speaking generally, Gn 817 (RV breed abundantly), and of men, 97 (RV herbivora and carnivora], on the sixth day); 126 (as id.) Ex 17 (of the Israelites multiplying in Egypt: given into the dominion of man, together with the RV increased abundantly). Shérez thus denotes fish of the sea,' the 'fowl of the air,' the cattle creatures that appear in swarms, whether such as and all beasts [Pesh.] of the earth'); 67.20 714.28 teem in the water, or those which swarm on the 817.19 (as spared, usually together with cattle' and ground or in the air, i.e. creeping and flying 'fowl, on occasion of the Flood); in other allusions insects, small reptiles, such as lizards, and small to the animal kingdom, often by the side of quadrupeds, as the weasel and the mouse. Shérez beasts,'' cattle,' 'fowl,' or 'fishes,' 1 K 488 (518) | and rémes are not co-extensive; for, though parHe spake also of cattle, and of fowl, and of ticular animals, as small reptiles, would no doubt creeping things, and of fishes,' Hos 218 (20); Hab 114 be included under either designation, rémes would (the Chaldæan makes men to be as the fishes of not be applied to flying insects, or (at least the sea, as the creeping things, over whom is no properly) to aquatic creatures, nor is it certain ruler'), Ezk 810 (figures of them worshipped by that it was applied to small quadrupeds, or even to Israelites), 3829, Ps 14810. In Gn 93 [RV moving creeping insects; while shérez would not probably thing], where the term stands by itself, it is used be used of large reptiles, or of any, in fact, which more generally of all gliding or creeping things (cf. | did not usually appear in swarms. the verb in Gn 128 721 819 [RV moveth, moved]; Ps S. R. DRIVER. 10420) and in Ps 10425 of gliding aquatic crea- **CREMATION.-It is sometimes stated that burntures (cf. the verb in Gn 121, Lv 1146, Ps 6984 (35) [RVing was the ordinary mode of disposing of the dead moveth]); s aisʊ perhaps (note the context, esp. v. 15) in Hab 114. The corresponding verb is often found closely joined to it, Gn 126 711 817, Ezk 3829; or used synonymously, Gn 180 78 92 (V teemeth), Lv 2025 (RV id.), Dt 418 (by the side of cattle, fowl, and fish), cf. Lv 1144 (RV moveth). These are all the occurrences of either the subst, or the verb. From a survey of the passages in which rémes occurs, especially those (as Gn 126, 1 K 43) in which it stands beside beasts, fowls, and fishes, in popular classifications of the animal kingdom, it is evident that it is the most general term denoting reptiles, which, especially in the East, would be the most conspicuous and characteristic of living species, when beasts, fowls, and fishes had been excluded. Dillm. and Keil (on Gn 124) both define it as denoting creatures moving on the ground either without feet, or with imperceptible feet.' It is often defined more precisely by the addition of that creepeth upon the earth,' or (Gn 125 620, Hos 218) upon the ground.' The term not being a scientific one, it included also, perhaps, creeping insects, and possibly even very small quadrupeds: but the limitation of rémes to the 'smaller quadrupeds of the earth' (to the exclusion of reptiles), which has been devised (Dawson, Modern Science in Bible Lands, 1888, p. 28) for the purpose of harmonizing' Gn 1 with the teachings of palæontology, is arbitrary, and cannot be sustained. It among all ancient nations, except the Egyptians, cremation would be difficult or impossible. (2) The other term, also sometimes unfortunately rendered creeping things,' is shérez (2); this is applied to creatures, whether terrestrial or aquatic, which appear in swarms, and is accordingly best represented by swarming things. occurs (sometimes with the cognate verb) Gn 12 'let the water swarm with swarming things,' cf. v.21 every living soul [see SOUL] that creepeth, wherewith the waters swarmed'; 721 (beside fowl and cattle and beast) every swarming thing that swarmed upon the earth'; Lv 52 the carcases of unclean swarming things'; 1110 of all the swarming things of the waters'; v.2) (= Dt 1419), vv. 21. 23 ged swarming things' (i.e. flying insects: Joew tare instanced); v.2 swarming things, that sugistrer, the earth (the weasel, the mouse, and lizards are instanced), cf. v.31 things'; vv. 41. 42. 43 every rmeth upon the earth' including more than four feet; V. “any sup them that creepeth upon the In the NT there is no instance of cremation, earth'; v.46evong Indiaâul that glideth (cf.whether Jewish, Christian, or heathen; and there above, No. 1) in the wind every living soul is abundant evidence that the early Christians that swarmeth upon the 225 whoso touch- followed the Jewish practice of burial, with or eth any swarming thing a he may become without embalming (Minuc. Felix, Octav. xxxix.; raz occurs also Tert. Apol. xlii.; Aug. De Civ. Dei, i. 12, 13). ith frogs' (cf. It was to outrage this well-known Christian sentiopyright, 1898, by Charles Scribner's Sons swarn unclean.' The cognate Ex 88 (728) the river shall ment that persecutors sometimes burned the bodies of the martyrs and scattered their ashes in mockery of the resurrection (Eus. H. E. v. 1. 62, 63; comp. Lact. Inst. vi. 12). The example of the Jews, the fact that Christ was buried, the association of burning with heathen practices, and perhaps rather material views respecting the resurrection, have contributed to make cremation unpopular among Christians. But there is nothing essentially antichristian in it: and charity requires us to adopt any reverent manner of disposing of the dead which science may prove to be least injurious to the living. A. PLUMMER. CRESCENS.-A companion of St. Paul in his final imprisonment, sent by him to Galatia (2 Ti| 410), .e. either to Asiatic Galatia, -a view supported by St. Paul's usage elsewhere, and by the context, in which all the other places mentioned lie east of Rome (so Const. Apost. vii. 46; Tillemont, Mémoires sur St. Paul, Note 81; Smith, DB2 s.v.); or possibly to Gaul (so & C, reading Talia; Euseb. HE iii. 4; Epiph. Hær. 51. 11; Theodore and Theodoret ad 2 Ti 410; Lightfoot, Gal. pp. 3 and 30). A late Western tradition treats him as the founder of the Churches of Vienne and of Mayence (Gams. Series Episc.). His memory is honoured in the Roman martyrology on June 27, in the Greek Menologion on May 30, and there he is treated as one of the seventy disciples, and a bishop of Chalcedon. [Acta Sanctorum, June 27; Menologion, May 30.] The name is Latin, and is found among the freedmen of Nero (Tac. Hist. i. 76), the centurions (Ann. xv. 11), and the priests of Phoebus (Inscr. Græcæ, Sic. et Ital. 1020). W. LOCK. CRESCENTS.-RV tr. of D Jg 821. 26 (AV 'ornaments'), Is 318 (AV 'round tires like the moon'). As clearly indicated by its etym. (from Aram. sahra, moon,' with ôn as diminutive termination, for which see Barth, Nominalbildg, § 212), the sahuron was a crescent or moon-shaped ornament of gold (Jg 825), introduced presumably by Syrian traders from Babylonia. In OT we find these crescents worn by Midianite chiefs (Jg 826), by the ladies of Jerus. (Is 318), and hung by the former on the necks of their camels (Jg 821). They were in all probability worn on the breast by a chain round the neck, like the crescents (hilâlât) of a modern Arab. belle (see Del. and Dillm. on Is 318; Keil, Bibl. Archeol. Eng. tr. ii. 149; Nowack, Heb. Arch. i. 129; cf. Jg 82b, where the crescents seem to be distinguished from the chains by which they were suspended). Others (e.g. Moore, Comm. in loc.) consider the latter to have been necklaces or collars, the elements of which were little golden crescents.' Originally the crescents were amulets or charms (W. R. Smith in Journ. of Philology, xiv. 122-123;* Wellh. Skizzen, iii. 144), although by Isaiah's time they may have become more purely ornamental. A. R. S. KENNEDY. CRETE.-Crete, the modern Candia, is an island in the Mediterranean, C0 miles to the S. of Greece. Its greatest length from E. to W. is 156 miles, while its width varies from 30 to 7 miles. The orig. inhabitants were prob. a kindred race with those of Asia Minor. C. plays a prominent part in the legendary, as well as in the early historical period. Lying as a convenient stepping-stone between the continents of the Old World, the island was probably colonised by the Dorians in the 3rd generation after their conquest of the Peloponnesus. Homer numbers them together with the Achæans and * Smith suggests that the sahārônîm may have been of horseshoe form, so that this is the same kind of amulet which is still often found on stable doors.' This Pelasgians among the inhabitants. Some striking points of resemblance are noticed by Aristotle (Politics, ii. 10) between the institutions of Sparta and those of C., prominent among them being the military training, and the system of common meals. The mythical king Minos, round whom so many legends cluster, is alluded to as a historical person by Thucyd. (i. 4. 8) and Aristotle. He was the first to gain command of the sea; he insured the payment of tribute by the suppression of piracy, and finally failed in an attempt to conquer Sicily. C. was mountainous, fertile, and thickly populated. Its cities were said to be 100 in number (Hom. Il. ii. 649; Virg. Aen. iii. 106), and elsewhere 90 (Hom. Od. xix. 174), the most important being Gnossus, Gortyna (1 Mac 1523), Cydonia, and Lyctus. The warlike spirit of the inhabitants, due to their position and training, was fostered by their internal disputes and their fondness for service as mercenaries. Tacitus (Hist. v. 2) says that the Jews were fugitives from C., and connects their name, 'Iovdaîoi, with the mountain in the island called Ida. probably arose from a confusion between the Jews and Philistines, the latter of whom are called Caphtorim, from Caphtor (Dt 228, Am. 97), the country from which they migrated to Pal., and may possibly be identified with the Cherethites mentioned 1 S 3014, Ezk 2516. In Jer 474 the passage 'the Philistines, the remnant of the isle of Caphtor,' has marginal alternative in RV of the sea-coast for 'isle'; and in the LXX (Zeph 2o) Táρoikoι KonTŵy is found and is tr. inhabitants of the seacoast, the nation of the Cherethites' (RV), and Kpýτn (Zeph 26)=the sea-coast.' Caphtor may have been a part of Crete, possibly Cydonia on the N. coast, which contained a river, Jardanus (cf. Jordan), Hom. Od. iii. 292. In any case C. was prob. a primitive settlement of the Caphtorim, and the Cretan character resembles in some respects what we know that of the Philistines to have been. The capture of Jerus. by Ptolemy Soter, and the forced emigration of the Jews, B.C. 320, drove many doubtless to C. as well as to Egypt. C. is mentioned in 1 Mac 1067. Demetrius Soter, an enemy of the Jews, had retired to a life of self-indulgence in Antioch, and was defeated and killed by the usurper Balas. The latter was in turn attacked by Demetrius Nikator, the son of Soter, who invaded Cilicia from C., and, though joined by Apollonius, the Rom. governor of Cole-Syria, was defeated by Jonathan Maccabæus near Azotus, B.C. 148. In B.C. 141 Simon Maccabæus, on the recognition of his authority, renewed the old friendship with the Romans, and obtained from the consul Lucius the promise of protection for the Jews from the inhabitants of Gortyna in C. (1 Mac 1523). There is no doubt that, after this date, the number of Jews in the island increased greatly. Internal quarrels among the Cretans led to the invitation to Philip IV. of Macedon to act as mediator, but the effects of his intervention were not lasting. C. was taken by the Romans under Metellus, B.C. 67, and joined to Cyrene and made a Roman province. Under Augustus, Creta-Cyrene became a senatorial province governed by a proprætor and a legatus. Cretans are mentioned (Ac 211) among the strangers present at Jerus. at the Feast of Pentecost. St. Paul touched at C. in the course of his disastrous voyage to Rome. Starting from Myra in Lycia, in the charge of a centurion, on board a corn ship of Alexandria, since the winds prevented a straight course, he sailed under the lee of C., i.e. S. instead of N. of the island. Skirting the promontory of Salmone (Ac 277), on the E. side, and coasting along the S., the vessel reached an anchorage called Fair Havens, a little to the E. of Cape Matala. Five miles to the E. some ruins have been discovered which may be those of Lasea. This harbour was not considered safe for wintering in, though St. Paul recommended keeping to it. It was getting late in the year. The Fast, i.e. the great Day of Atonement, on the 10th day of the 7th month Tisri, about the time of the autumnal equinox, had passed, and the ancients did not usually sail after the setting of the Pleiades, Oct. 20 (Hesiod, Works and Days, 619) or the beginning of Nov. The centurion, however, preferred the advice of the master and the owner of the vessel, who wished to reach the shelter of Phoenix on the S. W. of the island. This has usually been identified with Lutro, said to have been called by the ancients Phoenike, the only secure harbour on the S. coast which faced E. (RV). There is no harbour existing at that spot now, but one is marked in some Admiralty charts of the middle of the last cent., and called Lutro. In order to identify Phoenix (Ac 2712) with this roadstead, the forced interpretation of the words kaтà Xißa Kai Kaтd xwpov, down the S. W. wind and down the N.W. wind,' found in the RVm is adopted. It is better, however, to take the words as in AV in their usual sense, 'lying toward S. W. and N.W.,' esp. as there is a harbour opposite Lutro called Phineka in that position. On a gentle S. wind springing up, the attempt was made to reach Phoenix, and the vessel coasted along the S. shore of C. There suddenly, however, blew down from the island (xar' aurns) a wind, Euraquilo E.N.E., in the teeth of which it was found impossible to sail, so the ship was allowed to scud before the gale to the lee of Cauda (or Clauda, AV), 20 miles S. of Cape Matala, the southernmost promontory of the island. Fourteen days later the vessel was wrecked on the coast of Melita. It is not known who planted Christianity in C. If St. Paul did so, it must have been before his first imprisonment, possibly in the course of a visit while he was staying at Corinth or Ephesus. Perhaps the Church in the island had been founded by Christian converts. St. Paul seems to imply from his words to Titus (Tit 15), For this cause left I thee in C.,' that he had been to the island. The fact that Titus was left to supply all omissions and appoint elders in every city, shows that the Church had been established long enough to admit the presence of irregularities, and had been imperfectly organised. CRIER.-In this form the word is not found in the Bible, but the verb from which it is derived (R, Bodw) is sometimes used in the sense of cry. ing aloud, or proclaiming. Of Wisdom it is said that she crieth in the chief place of concourse,' Pr 12; and in answer to the question of the Jews, Who art thou?' the Baptist calls himself the voice of one crying in the wilderness,' Jn 12. In ancient times, when men were illiterate, and could not read written mandates, public criers proclaimed the orders of the king or men of authority. In the Middle Ages heralds, preceded by trumpeters who announced their mission, made public proclamations. This custom is still carried out in the E. In every town and village a public crier, distinguished for his loud voice, is appointed to give notice on the part of governors or other authorities of some fresh order. Or, going through the streets, or standing on some height, he announces the loss of some article,-sometimes the straying of a young child,-giving a description of the lost object, offering sometimes a reward, and always concluding with a reminder of the divine promise of a 'reward in heaven.' Of this class of public criers is the muezzin among Moslems, who at the five appointed times of prayer mounts the minaret, and, after proclaiming the unity and greatness of God, calls men to 'prayer and eternal happiness.' In the quiet watches of the night this cry, heard from many a minaret, is often very impressive. J. WORTABET. CRIME. About 1611 and earlier, 'crime' was used, like Lat. crimen, in the sense of charge or accusation; as Grafton (1568), Chron. ii. 92, The common people raysed a great cryme upon the Archbishop,' and Milton, Par. Lost, ix. 1181 'But I rue That error now, which is become my crime And thou th' accuser.' In three out of the four occurrences of c. in AV, this is the meaning. In Job 31 (1) the Heb., and presumably the Eng., is crime in the mod. sense. But in Ezk 723 the land is full of bloody crimes,' the Heb. (7) is accusation of bloodshed,' or as RVm, 'judgment of blood.' In Ac 2516 the c. (RV 'matter) laid against him,' the Gr. ykλnua means an accusation, and is so used distinctly in the only other occurrence in NT, Ac 23 (AV and RV charge'). Lastly, in Ac 257 to signify the crimes laid against him,' the Gr. alla certainly means 'accusation' (RV 'charge') as always in class. Greek. Cf. Ac 2518 Geneva, Against whom when the accusers stood up, they brought no crime of such things as I supposed.' J. HASTINGS. ་ The untrustworthy character of the Cretans (Kpires, Ac 21 AV Cretes, Tit 11a AV Cretians) was proverbial. St. Paul quotes from one of their own poets, Epimenides (Tit 112), who lived about B.C. 600, and is called by Plato a divine man,' that 'they were always liars, evil beasts, idle gluttons.' CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS.-A. CRIMES. Witness to their avarice is also borne by Livy -The term occurs in the Scriptures as a tr. of (xliv. 45) and Plutarch Æmilius (§ 23), 'the Čretans the foll. words :-, Ezk 7;, Job 31"; are as eager for riches as bees for honey'; to their, Gn 2610; airía, Ac 25, changed in RV to ferocity and fraud by Polybius and Strabo; and to their mendacity by Callimachus, Hymn in Jov. 8, who begins a line Kpres del yeûoral with the same words as Epimenides. charges,' and 'fault' in AV Jn 1888 194.6 to 'crime'; ykλnμa, Ac 2516, changed in RV to matter.' Crime is an act that subjects the doer to legal punishment; a grave offence against the legal order; wickedness; iniquity. In the Bible such an act is regarded as an offence against (1) God or (2) man. The distinction cannot always be maintained, for an injury to the creature is obnoxious to the Creator. For convenience of reference the list appears in alphabetical order. Adultery in general terms was forbidden in the seventh commandment (Ex 2014). It usually denotes sexual intercourse of a married woman with any other man than her husband, or of a married man with any other than his wife. More specifically in the Isr. as well as Rom. law, the term was confined to illicit intercourse of a married or betrothed woman with any other man than her husband. Other unchaste relations were disapproved, but they were described by different words. It was deemed an outrageous crime, striking at the laws of inheritance and inflicting a spurious offspring on the husband, and was to be punished with death, Lv 2010 1920-22, Ezk 1638. 40, by the act of stoning, Jn 85. It has been seriously doubted whether the extreme penalty was executed, Lightfoot failing to find the record of a single instance, except of a priest's daughter who was burnt according to the order, but she was unmarried. A bondmaid was only scourged (Lv 1920). Mutilation of nose and ears is mentioned (Ezk 2325). See Mutilation. Divorce became a substitute for severer penalties. The word is used to describe the unfaithfulness of the covenant people who dissolved their relation with God (Jer 22 314 1327 3132, Hos 8o), and those who rejected Christ are described as an adulterous generation' (Mt 1239 16', Mk 838). Affray. He who inflicted an injury was required to pay for loss of time and the medical expenses, and an especial consideration for a pregnant woman indirectly injured (Ex 2118. 19. 20-22). A certain form of vicious attempt was to be summarily and pitilessly punished (Dt 2511. 12). Assassination.-See Murder. Assault, resulting in damage, incurred the penalty of retaliation. The gêr as well as the home-born was protected (Lv 2419-22). Bestiality, treated as a rank and mortal offence (Ex 2219, Lv 1823 2015. 16). The Talm. gives as a reason for slaughter of the beast, that all memory of the low transaction might be obliterated. The crime was charged on the Canaanites, and was said to exist in Egypt. Blasphemy. An irreverent use of the name of God, accompanied with cursing (Lv 2410-14); a presumptuous deed, or, RV, an act done with a high hand' (Nu 1530); contempt towards God. See arparate article. sacrificial service was required for expiation (Lv 62-7). In this may be included breach of contract, which was also severely condemned in the religion of the ancient Persians (Zend. Farg. iv.). The removal of landmarks as set by God is an offence that exposes to the divine curse, Dt 1914 2717 (Jos. Ant. IV. viii. 18.). It was wrong to move them when set by the fathers (Pr 2228 2310). Bribery in general was forbidden, Ex 238, Dt 1619, and condemned, 2 Ch 197, Job 154, Ps 2610, Pr 685 1723, Is 123 3315, Ezk 2212. It was a vice to which rulers seem to have been addicted (1 S 8o 12o Am 512). Burglary.-See Robbery. Debt, while it might be a misfortune, could be incurred so as to expose to penalty where the insolvency was the result of fraud or neglect (Mt 5% 1828-34). Perhaps punishment was inflicted to deter others, rather than as a vindictive act against the offender. In Egypt he was subjected to the bastinado (Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, 1854, ii. 211). See separate article. Divination.-See MAGIC and sep. art. Drunkenness, a vice which, in view of its consequences, may be regarded as a crime (Is 281.8.7 5612, Ezk 232 RV). Religious abstinence from strong drink was viewed in the same light as refraining from unclean meats (W. R. Smith, RS 465). Teetotalism was required of a Nazirite, Jg 134, and commended, Jer 3519. Inebriety is forbidden in the Koran. See STRONG DRINK and DRUNKENNESS. Fornication, a sexual vice that was common before the time of Moses, being grossly prevalent in Egypt, as shown in Gn 397 and the evidence of the monuments; also in Babylonia (Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies, iii. 30). Prostitution, a heinous crime (Jos. Ant. IV. viii. 9), was not tolerated by the Sin. code, being an abomination in the sight of God (Lv 1929, Dt 2317. 18). Its price could not be accepted in the sanctuary, Mic 17, and death by Breach of Covenant.-In this term are included: stoning was the penalty for an unmarried woman (1) A failure to observe the Day of Atonement who had concealed her crime, Dt 2220. 21. It would (Lv 2329); work on that day (Lv 2328). (2) The seem from the term 'strange woman,' in Pr 216, Sacrifice of Children to Molech (Lv 203). (3) Neglect that_harlots were procured from foreigners. By to Circumcise the holy seed (Gn 174, Ex 424). (4) the Koran a courtesan was not allowed to testify, An unauthorized manufacture of the holy Oil and, according to the Zendavesta, she might be (Ex 30), and (5) Anointing a Stranger therewith killed without warrant, like a snake. Her vile (Ex 3033). (6) Neglect of the Passover (Nu 918). methods and their terrible effects are severely porBreach of Ritual.—(1) Eating Blood, whether of trayed in Pr 216-19 53-6 76-27, and as arousing the disfowl or beast (Lv 727 1714); because God has sancti- pleasure of God, Jer 57, Ám 27 717. Such excesses fied the life to Himself. (2) Eating Fat of the were very common among the heathen in the beast of sacrifice (Lv 725); regarded as insanitary. time of the apostles (1 Co 51.9.10 69, Gal 519, Eph 53). (3) Eating Leavened Bread during the passover Terms for this vice are frequently used in a sym(Ex 1215. 15). (4) Offering a sacrifice after the ap-bolical sense, the chosen nation being represented pointed time (Lv 198). See 715-18. (5) Failure to bring an Offering when an animal is slaughtered for food (Lv 174). The notion that such was dedicated to a deity existed even in Egypt. (6) Offering a sacrifice while the worshipper is in an Unclean condition (Lv 720. 21 223. 4.). (7) Manufacturing holy Ointment for private use (Ex 3032. 38). Perfume was regarded by the Semites as a holy thing (Pliny, xii. 54; see W. R. Smith, RS p. 433). (8) Using the same for Perfume (Ex 3038). (9) Neglect of Purification in general (Nu 1913. 20). The offender 'defileth the tabernacle of the Lord.' Cf. 1 Co 31. (10) Slaughtering an animal for food away from the door of the Tabernacle (Lv 174.9). The order was designed to enforce religious proprieties in eating, and to prevent formal worship elsewhere. Even the ger must comply. (11) Touching holy things (RV the sanctuary) illegally (Nu 415. 18-20). See 2 S 67, 2 Ch 2621. Breach or Betrayal of Trust, including false dealing in a matter of deposit, or of bargain, or of robbery, or oppression,' and involving the concealment of stolen goods, was regarded as a crime to which not only a penalty was attached, but a as a harlot or adulteress (Is 121, Jer 220, Ezk 16, Hos 12 31). Idolatry itself is so designated (Jer 38.9, Ezk 1626. 29 2387). Fornication is a type of unholy alliances in the Bk. of Rev, especially in chs. 17, 18, and 19. Homicide, which consists in taking human life without hatred or thirst of blood, or by mistake or accident, included cases like that of the owner of an ox which gored a man when it was not known to bo vicious (Ex 2128); the slaying of a thief overtaken in the night (Ex 2223); taking life without premeditation, or by casting a stone or missile at random (Nu 3522-23), or by the slipping of an axehead from its helve (Dt 195). See Dt 228 and art. GOEL. Idolatry. See separate article. Incest.-Carnal intercourse is treated as criminal when between a man and his mother, step-mother, half-sister, grand-daughter, step-sister, aunt, wife of an uncle, daughter-in-law, sister-in-law, stepdaughter, step-grand-daughter (Lv 186-18); or his mother-in-law (Dt 2720. 23). Mention of an own sister is omitted as too gross to consider. Infanticide.-See Murder. Kidnapping was a mortal offence (Dt 247). Lying, an attempt to deceive by speaking an untruth, was forbidden in the Mosaic law (Lv 1911), and included in the category of sins against God. It was a common evil among Oriental people, but considered very disgraceful (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyptians, 1854, ii. 207). The prophets especially fulminated against the effort to lead the people astray by false teaching (Is 915 2815. 17, Jer 1414 2710. 14. 15. 16, Ezk 21, Mic 114, Zec 133, and many other passages). Falsehood is severely rebuked in Ps 62 11969, Pr 145.25 195.9. In NT it is regarded as a sin odious to God (Ac 58.4); contrary to the essence of the gospel (1 Jn 16 221. 27); and disqualifying the perpetrator for the new order (Rev 218 2215). It is associated with perjury (1 Ti 11). See OATH, WITNESS, and LYING. Malice, that was made apparent in tale-bearing, lying in wait for blood, secret hatred, and bearing a grudge, is condemned (Lv 1916-18). Murder, according to the divine word, is a crime against which all nature revolts (Gn 410.23. 24). The sanctity of human life is founded on the fact that man was made in the image of God (Gn 96). Murder may be instigated by hatred (Nu 3520. 21); or by thirst for blood, prompted by premeditated design (Dt 19); or accomplished by deceitful stratagem (Ex 2114). Assassination is an aggravated form in which life is destroyed by surprise or unexpected assault and treacherous violence (2 S 45.), and the following instances occur: Eglon, Jg 320-22; Ishbosheth, 2 S 45.6; Nadab, 1 K 1527. 28; Sennacherib, 2 K 1987, 2 Ch 3221; Gedaliah, Jer 413. In the times of Felix and Festus there appeared a fanatical faction of Jewish patriots known as Sicarii, armed with daggers, sicca, who, flitting about unobserved among the crowds during festival seasons, removed opponents by assassination, and then feigned deep sorrow to avert suspicion. See Ac 2188 (Jos. Ant. XX. viii. 5, Wars, il. xiii. 3, II. xvii. 6, IV. vii. 2, ix. 5, VII. viii. 1, x. 1, xi. 1; Schürer, HJP 1. ii. 178, 185). There is no mention of parricide and infanticide in the Mosaic code, as if these crimes were not known to exist or be possible. In Egypt the parent was doomed to embrace the corpse of the child for three days (Wilkinson, Anc. Egyp. ii. 209); and while the Koran condemned prenatal murder as well, E. H. Palmer states in a note to Koran vi. 137, that female children were buried alive in Arabia. The following cases of suicide appear: Saul and his armour-bearer, 1 S 315; Ahithophel, 2 S 1723; Zimri, 1 K 1618; Judas Iscariot, Mt 275; also Ptolemy Macron, 2 Mac 1013, and Razis, 2 Mac 1441-46. It could be treated as a crime by the Jews (Jos. Wars, III. viii. 5), but there is no mention of penalty in the Scriptures. Murder in all its forms is forbidden in Ex 2013, Dt 517. No sanctuary was to be allowed to the criminal (Ex 2112, Lv 2417. 21, Nu 3516. 18, Dt 191-13, 1 K 28-34). In poetic thought the voice of blood shed cried for vengeance until the murderer was punished (Gn 410). A woe is pronounced on the city that is regarded as guilty (Ézk 246-8); and when unsuccessful, after the most diligent efforts, in detecting the criminal (Jos. Ant. IV. viii. 16), it must by an elaborate and impressive ceremony exonerate itself (Dt 211-9). So sacred was the regard for human life, that the owner of an ox known to be vicious and causing death was held guilty of a capital crime, and the ox was stoned (Ex 21). In Egypt, he who witnessed a murder without giving information of it was considered particeps criminis. Irreverence and Unkindness to Parents.-The command to honour father and mother (Ex 2012), also inculcated in the Koran (xvii. 24. 25), rests on Bзacred relation corresponding to that of the divine creation. God's majesty is violated when parents are dishonoured (Ex 2214). Hence the following are prohibited: (1) Cursing father or mother (Ex 211, Lv 20o). Examples of this offence in practice are condemned in Mt 154-6, Mk 79-12. (2) Striking (Ex 2115). This was a capital crime (Dt 2118-21). It is possible that insolence to parents was condonable by reformation, and there are evidences that the laws were not invariably executed with extreme rigour. Jos. (Ant. XVI. xi. 2) recounts an ineffectual attempt of Herod at Berytus to get rid of his sons on this charge. Prophesying Falsely.-See PROPHECY. Prostitution.-See Fornication. Rape, a foul crime that demanded capital punishment (Dt 2225). See Seduction. Robbery, when the act is accompanied with violence, as burglary, placed the offender beyond protection (Ex 222). The Egyp. law was similar. Various degrees of the crime were recognized, it being a capital offence to take the 'devoted thing' (Jos 725), or to steal a man (Ex 2116, Dt 247). See Kidnapping. Sabbath-Breaking.-See SABBATH. Seduction consisted in the enticement of an unbetrothed virgin, for which restitution was to be made by subsequent marriage, unless the father interposed an obstacle, but then the usual dowry was exacted (Ex 2216). In Dt 2228 it is stated that a fine of 50 shekels was required, and there is no hint of possible compromise. Selden (Heb. Laws) states that the Sanhedrin added other mulcts, because this was so insignificant: one for the shame and dishonour; one for the loss of virginity and the vitiating of the body, and still another if force had been used; and some account was taken of the quality and station of the person injured (see W. R. Smith, RS 276). An offending bondmaid was scourged, and her enticer, besides paying the fine, must make a trespass-offering (Lv 1920-22). Slander was prohibited, though no punishment is named (Ex 231) except when a wife's chastity was falsely impeached (Dt 3213-19). See separate article. Sodomy was delicately but positively condemned in Gn 1313 195. 7, and regarded as an abomination (Lv 1822 2013). On this crime the Koran and Zendavesta likewise are very severe. The Israelites were not always innocent. It was an evil practised in religious ceremonies, as appears from the terms and (Gn 3821 and Hos 414), which snow that both males and females were set apart for such flagitious uses; but if allowed in heathen temples, it was never to be permitted in the worship of J", Dt 2317, 1 K 1424 1512 2246, 2 K 237, Job 3614, Hos 44 (W. R. Smith, RS 133). Speaking Evil of Rulers.-In the theocracy rulers are regarded as standing in the place of God, and so all reproachful words are prohibited. In Ex 228. 28, Jg 58, 1 S 225, Ps 821. 2. the term og is used so as to imply that judges or legal officers are divine representatives. Swearing Falsely was never excusable even on behalf of the poor (Ex 2016 231-3); but when it was directed against the innocent, it was so aggravated a crime as to permit of no reprieve or pity (Dt 1916-21). See LYING and OATH. Theft involved the culprit, when convicted, in fines of varying grades, and it has been thought, from Pr 63.31 compared with Ex 22', that the evil was more prevalent in the later history of the people. Harmer (Observations, ii. 194) shows that it was shameful to steal in a caravanserai (Sir 4119). In later times it was not considered a crime to steal from a Samaritan or another thief. Uncleanness as the result of incontinence, lack of restraint, or self-abuse, was forbidden directly (Lv 1819 2018); marked with the divine displeasure (Gn 3810); and indirectly disapproved (Lv 151-18). The Zendavesta pronounces a similar condemnation, |