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CHAPTER V.

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE of scrip TURE.

FIGURATIVE language had its rise in the first ages of mankind: the scarcity of words occasioned them to be used for various purposes: and thus figurative terms, which constitute the beauty of language, arose from its poverty; and it is still the same in all uncivilised nations. Hence originated the metaphorical diction of the Indians, and the picture-writing of the Mexicans.

The Bible, though too commonly regarded as containing only lessons of morality and plain statements of facts, abounds with the most beautiful images, and with every ornament of which style is susceptible. Yet these very ornaments are sometimes occasions of difficulty; for the books, which contain the revelations of God, being more antient than any others now extant, are written either in the language used by mankind in the first ages, or in a language nearly allied to it. The style of these writings, therefore, being very different from that of modern compositions, to interpret them exactly as they are usually expounded, is without doubt to mis-interpret them; accordingly, persons ignorant of the character of the primitive languages, have, by that method of interpretation, been led to imagine that the Scriptures contain notions unworthy of God: and thus have not only exposed these venerable writings to the scorn of infidels, but have also framed to themselves erroneous notions in religion. To prevent similar mistakes, and, it is hoped, to render more delightful the study of the sacred volume by an explanation of its figurative language, is the design of the present chapter.

Figures, in general, may be described to be that language, which is prompted either by the imagination or by the passions. Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes, figures of words and figures of thought. Figures of words, are usually termed tropes, and consist in the advantageous alteration of a word or sentence, from its original and proper signification to another meaning; as in 2 Sam. xxiii. 3. The rock of Israel spake to me. Here the trope lies in the word rock, which is changed from its original sense, as intending one of the strongest works and most certain shelters in nature; and is employed to signify that God, by his faithfulness and power, is the same security to the soul which trusts in him, as the rock is to the man who builds upon it, or flees for safety to its impenetrable recesses. So, in Luke xiii. 32. our Lord, speaking of Herod, says, Go ye, and tell that fox: here the word fox is diverted from its proper meaning, which is that of a beast of prey and of deep cunning, to denote a mis

1 Macknight on the Epistles, vol. iv. 4to., or vol. vi. 8vo. essay viii. sect. 1. On the right Interpretation of Scripture. The materials of this chapter are abridged chiefly from Professor Dathe's edition of Glassius's Philologia Sacra, lib. ii. forming the whole second volume of that elaborate work. See also Jahn's Enchiridion Hermeneutica Generalis, cap. iv. De Tropis Recte Interpretandis, pp. 101-125, and Rambach's Institutiones Hermeneutice Sacre, lib. iii. c. ii. De Adminiculis Rhetoricis, pp. 429-440.

chievous, cruel, and crafty tyrant; and the application of the term gives us a complete idea of his hypocrisy.

The other class, called figures of thought, supposes the words to be used in their literal and proper meaning, and the figure to consist in the turn of the thought; as is the case in exclamations, apostrophes, and comparisons, where, though we vary the words that are used, or translate them from one language into another, we may nevertheless still preserve the same figure in the thought. This distinction, however, Dr. Blair remarks, is of no great use, as nothing can be built upon it in practice: neither is it always very clear. It is of little importance, whether we give to some particular mode of expresssion the name of a trope, or of a figure, provided we remember that figurative language always imports some colouring of the imagination, or some emotion of passion expressed in our style: and, perhaps, figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution of the subject."

Without regarding, therefore, the technical distinctions, which have been introduced by rhetorical writers, we shall first offer some hints by which to ascertain and correctly interpret the tropes and figures occurring in the sacred writings; and in the following sections we shall notice the principal of them, illustrated by examples, to which a diligent reader may easily subjoin others.

SECTION I.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE INTERPRETATION OF TROPES AND

FIGURES.

"ALL languages are more or less figurative: but they are most so in their earliest state. Before language is provided with a stock of words, sufficient in their literal sense to express what is wanted, men are under the necessity of extending the use of words beyond the literal sense. But the application, when once begun, is not to be limited by the bounds of necessity. The imagination, always occupied with resemblances, which are the foundation of figures, disposes men to seek for figurative terms, where they might express themselves in literal terms. Figurative language presents a kind of picture to the mind, and thus delights while it instructs: whence its use, though more necessary when a language is poor and uncultivated, is never wholly laid aside, especially in the writings of orators and poets." The language of the Scriptures is highly figurative, especially in the Old Testament. For this, two reasons have been assigned; one is, that the inhabitants of the East, naturally possessing warm and vivid imaginations, and living in a warm and fertile climate, surrounded by objects equally beautiful and agreeable, delight in a figurative style of expression: and as these circumstances easily impel their power of conceiving images, they fancy similitudes which are sometimes far fetched, and

1 Blair's Lectures, vol. i. p. 320.

2 Bishop Marsh's Lectures, part iii. p. 69.

which, to the chastised taste of European readers, do not always ap pear the most elegant. The other reason is, that many of the books of the Old Testament are poetical: now it is the privilege of a poet to illustrate the productions of his muse, and to render them more animated, by figures and images drawn from almost every subject that presents itself to his imagination. Hence David, Solomon, Isaiah, and other sacred poets, abound with figures, make rapid transitions from one to another, every where scattering flowers, and adorning their poems with metaphors, the real beauty of which however can only be appreciated by being acquainted with the country in which the sacred poets lived, its situation and peculiarities, and also with the manners of the inhabitants, and the idioms of their language.

The language of the New Testament, and especially the discourses and speeches of our Saviour, are not less figurative: "and numerous mistakes have been made by a literal application of what was figuratively meant. When our Saviour said to the Jews, 'Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up,' the Jews understood the word temple in its natural sense, and asked him, Whether he could raise again in three days what had taken six-and-forty years to build? They did not perceive that his language was figurative, and that he spake of the temple of his body."

In order, then, to understand fully the figurative language of the Scriptures, it is requisite, first, to ascertain and determine what is really figurative, lest we take that to be literal which is figurative, as the disciples of our Lord and the Jews frequently did, or lest we pervert the literal meaning of words by a figurative interpretation; and, secondly, when we have ascertained what is really figurative, to interpret it correctly, and deliver its true sense. For this purpose, Ernesti has given the following general rule:- We may ascertain whether any expression is to be taken literally or figuratively, by recalling the thing spoken of to its internal or external sense, that is, by seeking out its internal or external meaning; and this may in general be readily ascertained. Hence it is, that in human compositions we are very rarely if ever in doubt, whether a thing be spoken literally or figuratively; because the thing or subject spoken of being human, and capable both of external and internal senses, may be recalled to a human sense, that is, to a sense intelligible by man. To understand this subject more particularly:

1. The literal meaning of words must be retained, more in the histovical books of Scripture, than in those which are poetical.

For it is the duty of an historian to relate transactions, simply as they happened ; while a poet has license to ornament his subject by the aid of figures, and to ren der it more lively by availing himself of similes and metaphors. Hence we find, that the style of narration in the historical books, is simple and generally devoid of ornament, while the poetical books abound with images borrowed from various objects: not, indeed, that the historical books are entirely destitute of figurative expressions; for, whatever language men may use, they are so accustomed to this mode of expression, that they cannot fully convey their meaning in literal words, but are compelled by the force of habit to make use of such as are figurative. But we must not look for a figurative style in the historical books, and still less are historical narratives to be changed into allegories, and parables, unless

1 Bishop Marsh's Lectures, part iii. p. 69.

these be obviously apparent. Those expositors therefore violate this rule, for the interpretation of the Scriptures, who allegorise the history of the fall of man,1 and that of the prophet Jonah.

2. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if it be either im proper, or involve an impossibility.

Thus, in Jer. i, 18. God is represented as saying to the prophet, I have made thee a defenced city, and an iron pillar, and brazen walls against the whole land. Now, it is obvious that these expressions are figurative: because, if taken literally, they involve an impossibility. The general import of the divine promise is, that God would defend Jeremiah against all open assaults and secret contrivances of his enemies, who should no more be able to prevail against him than they could against an impregnable wall or fortress. So the literal sense of Isa. i. 25. is equally inapplicable; but in the following verse the prophet explains it in the proper words.

3. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if the predicate, being literally taken, be contrary to the subject. In Amos iv. 1. we read: Hear this word, O ye Kine of Bashan, That are on the mountain of Samaria;

That oppress the poor, that crush the needy;

That say to their masters, Bring, and let us drink.

Here the predicates, to oppress, crush, and say, (which, if the subject, the Kine of Bashan, be taken literally, do not answer to it, but may be accommodated to men,) evidently indicate that the expression is figurative; and that by the Kine of Bashan, which place was famous for its flocks and herds, we are to understand the proud and luxurious matrons of Israel. In like manner, in Psal. xviii. 2. where God is termed a rock, a fortress, a deliverer, a buckler, a horn of salvation, and a high tower, it is obvious that these predicates are metaphorically spoken of the Almighty.

4. Where the literal meaning of words is contrary, either to common sense, to the context, to parallel passages, or to the scope of a passage, it must be given up.

When, in Psalm xliv. 23. the Psalmist exclaims, Awake, why sleepest thou? The literal signification of sleeping cannot be retained; because, as the sacred poet observes in another Psalm, He that keepeth Israel neither slumbereth nor sleepeth. Now matter of fact shows, that the assertion, contained in the passage last cited, is to be understood properly and literally, and consequently that the interrogation comprised in the xlivth Psalm must be taken figuratively. In Isa.. iv. 4. that the expression, the filth of the daughters of Zion, must be understood figuratively, is evident, not only from the scope of the passage, but also from the words immediately following, the blood of Jerusalem, that is, the murder and bloodshed committed by the inhabitants of Jerusalem. To change day into night (Job xvii. 12.) is a moral impossibility, contrary to common sense, and must be a figurative expression. In Isa. i. 5, 6. the Jewish nation are described as being sorely stricken or chastised, like a man mortally wounded, and destitute both of medicine as well as of the means of cure. That this description is figurative, is evident from the context; for in the two following verses the prophet delineates the condition of the Jews in literal terms.

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The declaration of our Lord in Matt. xxvi. 26. 28. may be cited as an illustration of the four preceding rules; as the interpreting of his words, literally, is not only repugnant to the sacred history, and involves an absurdity, but is also contrary to the context, to parallel texts, and to the scope of the passage. Yet it is upon a forced and literal construction of these words that the church of Rome has, ever since the thirteenth century, erected and maintained the doctrine of transubstantiation, or of the conversion of the bread and wine in the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, into the actual body and blood of Christ! - A doctrine which is manifestly "repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions." The expressions, "this is my body," and "this is my blood," (Matt. xxvi. 26. 23. and Mark xiv. 22. 24. compared with Luke xxii. 19, 20. and 1 Cor. xi. 24, 25.) by a well known metonymy, simply mean, "this represents my body," and "this represents my blood."3 1 See Gen. ii. and iii.

2 Art. xxvii. of the Confession of the Anglican Church.

3 Whitby in loc. Dr. Clarke's Discourse on the Eucharist, pp. 50-54. The modern Jews employ a similar phraseology in celebrating the passover. The plate

For, as these words were spoken before Christ's body was broken upon the cross, and before his blood was shed, he could not pronounce them with the intention that they should be taken and interpreted literally by his disciples: nor do we find that they ever understood him thus. If the words of institution had been spoken in English or Latin at first, there might perhaps have been some reason for supposing that our Saviour meant to be literally understood. But they were spoken in Syriac; in which, as well as in the Hebrew and Chaldee languages, there is no word which expresses to signify, represent, or denote. Hence it is that we find the expression it is, so frequently used in the sacred writings, for it represents or signifies. Thus, in Gen. xvii. 10. 23. 26. this is [represents] my covenant betwixt me and thee. So, in Gen. xli. 26, 27. the seven good kine and the seren illfavoured kine ARE [represent] seven years. Exod. xii. 11. This is [represents] the Lord's passover. Dan. vii. 24. The ten horns ARE [denote] ten kings, 1 Cor. x. 4. That rock was [typified or represented] Christ. Matt. xiii. 38, 39. The field is [denotes] the world; the good seed is [represents] the children of the kingdom; the tares ARE [represent] the children of the wicked one. The enemy Is [represents] the Devil: the harvest 18 [signifies] the end of the world; the reapers ARE [represent] Angels. Similar modes of expression occur in Luke viii. 9. xv. 26. Gr. and xviii. 36. Gr. John vii. 36. and x. 6. Acts x. 17. Gal. iv. 24. and Rev. i. 20. It is further worthy of remark, that we have a complete version of the Gospels in the Syriac language, which was executed at the commencement of the second if not at the close of the first century, and in them it is probable that we have the precise words spoken by our Lord on this occasion. Of the passage, Matt. xxvi. 26. 28. the Greek is a verbal translation: nor would any man even in the present day, speaking in the same language, use, among the people to whom it was vernacular, other terms to express, "this represents my body," and "this represents my blood." It is evident, therefore, from the context, from parallel passages, and the scope of the passage, that the literal interpretation of Matt. xxvi. 26. 28. must be abandoned, and with it necessarily falls the monstrous doctrine of transubstantiation.

IV. It is not, however, sufficient to know whether an expression be figurative or not, but when this point is ascertained, another of equal importance presents itself; namely, to interpret metaphorical expressions by corresponding and appropriate terms. In order to accomplish this object, it is necessary that we inquire in what respects the thing compared, and that with which it is compared, respectively agree, and also in what respects they have any affinity or resemblance: for as a similitude is concealed in every metaphor, it is only by diligent study that it can be elicited, by carefully observing the points of agreement between the proper or literal and the figurative meaning.

For instance, the prophetic writers, and particularly Ezekiel, very frequently charge the Israelites with having committed adultery and played the harlot, and with deserting Jehovah, their husband. From the slightest inspection of these passages, it is evident that spiritual adultery, or idolatry, is intended. Now the origin of this metaphor is to be sought from one and the same notion, in which there is an agreement between adultery and the worship paid by the Israelites to strange gods. That notion or idea is unfaithfulness; by which, as a wife deceives her husband, so they are represented as deceiving God, and as violating their fidelity, in forsaking him.

To explain this general remark more particularly,

1. The sense of a figurative passage will be known, if the resemblance between the things or objects compared be so clear as to be immediately perceived.

Thus, if any one be said to walk in the way of the ungodly, or of the godly, we readily apprehend that the imitation of the conduct of those characters is the idea designed to be expressed. In like manner, when any one is compared to a lion, containing the passover-cakes being lifted up by the hands of the whole company, they unite in rehearsing: "This is the bread of poverty and affliction which our fathers did eat in Egypt," &c. Allen's Modern Judaism, p. 383. The doctrine of transubstantiation is confuted at length by the Bishop of Durham. (Tracts, pp. 355-370.) See also Mr. Fletcher's Lectures on Popery, pp. 139-169.

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