the regular feet in the same passage; in other words, the verse may be fairly called iambic pentameter.

The writing down and marking of the accented and unaccented syllables, including the foot division, is called scansion.

II. FIGURES OF SPEECH

The language of poetry is rich in figures of speech. Some of those which occur frequently in Julius Cæsar are here defined:

A Figure of Speech is a non-literal expression; that is, an expression which is not intended to be taken literally. In any figure of speech what is actually said is not what is meant; but the real meaning is in some way suggested by the words used. A skilful use of these tropes, as they are sometimes called, results in a freshness, vigor, and beauty of language which is impossible without their use.

Simile is the simplest of all, for it consists in a direct comparison between two objects or qualities of objects. One thing is said to be like another (although as a matter of fact it is similar only in one respect):

"And though we lay these honors on this man,
He shall but bear them as the ass bears gold,
Either led or driven as we point the way."

IV, i, 19-23

Metaphor is an indirect or implied comparison between two objects or qualities of objects. Here the conjunctions like or as do not appear, for the comparison is implied somewhere in the statement itself. It may even lie in a single word:

"Pardon me, Julius! Here wast thou bay'd, brave hart,

Here didst thou fall, and here thy hunters stand." III, i, 205 Personification is a metaphor in which a lifeless object is given the attributes or qualities of a human being:

"Put a tongue

In every wound of Cæsar, that should move
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny."

III, ii, 234

Metonymy is a metaphor in which the object named is closely associated in people's minds with the thing meant:

“And drive away the vulgar from the streets.”
"That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood [sons]."

I, i, 75

I, i, 56

Synecdoche is still another variety of metaphor in which only a part of the object meant is named:

"The angry spot doth glow on Cæsar's brow." I, ii, 182 Irony is a figure of speech in which the thing said is the exact contrary of the thing meant:

"I fear I wrong the honorable men
Whose daggers have stabb'd Cæsar."

Hyperbole is exaggeration:

"Weep your tears

Into the channel, till the lowest stream

Do kiss the most exalted shores of all."

III, ii, 158

I, i, 63

Prolepsis is the transfer of a word from the part of the sentence in which it grammatically belongs to another position:

I, ii, 122

"His coward lips did from their color fly,"

"Their bloody sign of battle is hung out."

V, i, 14

Ellipsis is the omission of a word or phrase necessary to the meaning:

"And something [-] to be done immediately." V, i, 15 Euphemism is the intentional modification of a strong word or idea into some milder form. In Shakespeare's hands this is a very effective figure of speech, gaining force for the idea, rather than weakening it:

"Shall no man else be touch'd [killed] but only Cæsar?"

"His means,

If he improve them, may well stretch so far
As to annoy us all."

III.-SHAKESPEARE'S GRAMMAR

II, i, 154

II, i, 158

The student of Shakespeare soon discovers grammatical peculiarities which call for some comment or explanation. Many are due to the fact that Shakespeare's English is three hundred years old; others are peculiar to his own method of writing, his free use of words, and his large and vital way of expressing thought.

Parts of Speech. "Almost any part of speech may be used as any other part of speech." Examples: "Thou couldst not die more honorable" (adjective as adverb); "Here in Philippi fields" (noun as adjective); "Which we will niggard with a little rest" (adjective or noun as verb); "To stale with ordinary oaths" (adjective as verb); "For if thou path, thy native semblance on" (noun as verb).

Pronouns.

1. His for its. The neuter possessive pronoun is rarely found in writers of Shakespeare's day. For the most part they used the old-fashioned his. Ex. "And chastisement doth therefore hide his head."

2. Thou and you. These pronouns were used much as the corresponding German forms, du and Sie, are used to-day. Thou showed affection, familiarity, superior station in the speaker, or even contempt. You was the more "polite" form. Ex. (Cassius to Brutus) "I think we are too bold upon your rest." (Brutus to the young Octavius) "O, if thou wert the noblest of thy strain, young man, thou couldst not die more honorable." (Brutus to his servant Lucius) "If thou dost nod thou break'st thy instrument."

3. The Personal for the Reflexive Pronoun. Ex. "Submitting me unto the perilous night."

4. The Dative of Interest, or Ethical Dative. Here the pronoun has entirely lost its original meaning, to imply that the action was done for the sake of, or in the interest of, the speaker. Ex. "He plucked me ope his doublet," I, ii, 267.

Verbs.

1. Singular Verb with Plural Subject. Ex. "There's two or three of us." "There is tears for his love."

2. Plural Verb with Singular Subject. Ex. "The posture of your blows are yet unknown."

3. Subjunctive Mood. This mood is commoner in Shakespeare than in modern English. Ex. "He were no lion were not Romans hinds.” “And that were much he should."

Adjectives.

I. The Double Comparative or Superlative. Ex. "This was the most unkindest cut of all.”

Adverbs.

1. Double Negatives. Ex. "Yet 'twas not a crown neither."

NOTES

ACT I. SCENE I.

Line 3. Being mechanical: being mechanics, or laboring men. 20. mend me: Marullus means correct me, criticise me.

35. Cæsar's triumph: This was the fifth and last of Cæsar's triumphs, in honor of his victory over the sons of Pompey in Spain. A triumph was a solemn procession in which the victor rode in a triumphal chariot, preceded by his captives and spoils of war, and followed by his army.

51. replication. Consult an unabridged dictionary. ster's, 3rd meaning; Standard, 5th.)

(Web

The great

59. intermit the plague: suspend the curse. plague of London was still fresh in the minds of the people.

64. till the lowest stream, etc. Till the river be raised from low water mark to high. An instance of exaggeration, or hyperbole.

69. images: statues of Cæsar, decked with scarfs and garlands.

75. vulgar: the crowd of common people.

78. fly an ordinary pitch. The pitch in falconry was the highest point of the hawk's flight. Hawks, or falcons, were trained to catch birds and return with them to the hunter. Sometimes, doubtless, the hawk failed to return, and methods had to be devised to make them fly an ordinary pitch.

Flourish. A set of notes on the trumpet. The flourish preceded the entrance or exit of a king, prince, or other important personage in the play.

for the course: dressed for the race of young men in the Lupercalia. See footnote 2, page 5.

Soothsayer. Consult an unabridged dictionary.