like Hercules, after his death. From him comes the German word Mann, signifying a male endowed with power and courage. MANOEL, don Francesco, the most celebrated lyric poet of modern Portuguese literature, born at Lisbon, 1734, died at Paris, 1819. His talent was first known to foreigners, whom he attended as a Cicerone, after the earthquake of Lisbon in1755. His poems are also popular among his countrymen. That on Virtue has been generally admired. His enemies, jealous of his reputation, endeavored to render his opinions suspicious, for which they found means in his expressions concerning toleration and monks, and in his translation of the Tartuffe of Molière. Cited before the inquisition, he disarmed (July 4, 1778) the agent of the holy office, and fled to Paris, where he ever after continued to reside. He translated Wieland's Oberon. His poems, under the title of Versos de Filinto Elysio, fill several volumes. His odes and his translation of Lafontaine's Fables, are particularly esteemed.

MANEUVRE, in military art; a movement given to a body of troops, according to the rules of tactics, by which it is intended to gain a decisive advantage over an enemy, or to regain advantages which the enemy has already won. A mancuvre may be executed by large or small masses, according to a preconcerted plan, or upon the sudden impulse of genius seizing upon a favorable moment: in general, it may be said, that manoeuvres have become more practicable in proportion as armies have grown larger, and discipline stricter. In an ancient battle, after the combat was well kindled, the commander lost, in a great degree, the direction of his troops in modern battles, he is enabled by manœuvres to exert a much more controlling influence, though there are still moments when he is obliged to let the battle rage. (See Battle.) To execute effective manœuvres in the heat of battle, requires great coolness and clear-sightedness in the commander, and thorough training in the troops. A manoeuvre generally is a test of the excellence of the officers of all degrees.-One of the most important manoeuvres is that of outflanking an enemy, in which the general keeps back part of his line (refuses), whilst the other part strives to turn the wing of the onemy, or to attack it with the assistance of a division particularly appointed to get round it, and thus to throw the enemy Ente confusion. The invention of this Banœuvre is ascribed to Epaminondas; he owed to it his victories at Leuctra and

Mantinea. Philip, Alexander, Cæsar at Pharsalia, Baner at Wittstock, Torstenson at Jankowitz, Frederic the Great at Hohenfriedberg and Leuthen, Napoleon, and other generals, owe their most brilliant successes to this manœuvre. In executing it, the attacking army always receives an oblique direction, and the attack is sometimes made en échelon (q. v.), as at Leuthen. The breaking through the enemy's line (see Line)-a chief manoeuvre in naval warfare is, in land-battles, one of the boldest and most dangerous. The retreat en échequier (chess-board) is one of the most advantageous, and most fitted to preserve calmness and order among the troops. The change of front during the combat is very dangerous, and rarely succeeds. The issue of a battle, where the other circumstances are nearly equal, depends upon the capacity of the troops for manoeuvring: hence manoeuvring in peace with large bodies is very necessary, in which the chief movements of both parties must be laid down beforehand; but the details ought to be left to the moment, so that the judgment of the officers shall be exercised. In the provinces of Prussia, large bodies of troops are annually assembled for this purpose. In 1823, from September 5 to September 20, 40,000 troops were collected for this object near Berlin. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII exercised their troops so well that they were allowed to be the best in Europe; but Frederic the Great conceived the whole art of war from a new point of view, and from Potsdam, where he superintended the reviews and manoeuvres of his guards, and the garrison of Berlin, it may be said, proceeded the new art of war. There he perfected the movements which were afterwards introduced into the army at large; and generals from all Europe were sent to study his manoeuvres. But, as so often happens with the creations of genius, the application of his plans by inferior men was attended with a pedantic minuteness of detail with which the armies of Europe were embarrassed when the wars of the French revolution took place. The genius of the French generals now reformed the art of war anew manoeuvring on a great scale was ia vented by them. Napoleon developed it still farther, and the rest of Europe learned it from him.

MANOMETER (Gr. μανος, rare, and μετρον measure); an instrument to measure of show the alterations in the rarity or density of the air.

MANOR (manerium, from manere, to re

main, because the usual residence of the owner) seems to have been a piece of territory held by a lord or great personage, who occupied a part of it, as much as was necessary for the use of his own immediate family, and granted or leased the remainder to tenauts for stipulated rents or services. This was the origin of copyhold estates, viz. those held by copy of the roll of the court of the manor. No manors, with all their incidents and franchises, have been granted in England since the reign of Edward III. One of the most important incidents to these ancient manors, was the right to hold a court, called a courtbaron, which was held within the manor, and had jurisdiction of misdemeanors and nuisances within the manor, and disputes about property between the tenants. (See Courts.) Another branch of the jurisdiction, and entirely distinct from the preceding, was, the receiving of the surrender of the estate of any tenant, and admitting his grantee or successor in his place, and transacting other matters relating to the tenure or tenancies, for which purposes the court was held by the steward of the manor. The steward was also the registrar or clerk, in the other branch of the jurisdiction, for the prosecution of suits; but the frecholders of the manor were in effect the judges in these.

MANSFELD; one of the most ancient families of German counts, taking their name from the castle of Mansfeld in the former circle of Upper Saxony.-Peter Ernst von Mansfeld was the natural son of Peter Ernst, count of Mansfeld, governor of Luxemburg and Brussels. The archduke Ernst of Austria, godfather to the young Peter, educated him in the Catholic religion. He was of service to the king of Spain in the Netherlands, and to the emperor in Hungary, in consequence of which the emperor Rodolphus II legitimated him. But when he was denied the dignity and estates which his father had possessed in the Netherlands, and which had been promised to him, he, in 1610, embraced the Calvinistic doctrines, and, joining the Protestant princes, became one of the most formidable enemies of the house of Austria. In 1618, he led troops to the assistance of the revolted Bohemians, fought a long time for the elector Frederic of the Palatinate, devastated the territories of the spiritual princes, was several times beaten, but always contrived to make head anew. In 1625, he collected an army by the aid of English and French money, and intended to penetrate into the Austrian hereditary

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states. April 25, 1626, he was beaten by Wallenstein near Dessau, yet continued his march to Hungary, to join Bethlem Gabor, prince of Siebenbürgen (Transylvania); but, the latter having changed his views, Mansfeld disbanded his troops, intending to go to England by way of Venice. But not far from Zara he fell sick, and died in 1626, in his 40th year. He was buried at Spalatro. At the approach of death, he ordered his armor to be put on, and stood up, leaning on two of his aids, to await the last enemy. Mansfeld was one of the greatest generals of his time

He rose more formidable from every defeat. With great understanding, which he showed in his diplomatic transactions, he united overpowering eloquence and inexhaustible cunning. He maintained his troops by plunder, and was compared to Attila.-The Lutheran line of the house of Mansfeld became extinct in 1710: in 1780, the last male of the Catholic line died. His only daughter brought all the allodial estates of the family, by marriage, to the rich Bohemian house of Colloredo, which has ever since borne the name of Colloredo-Mansfeld. The former county of Mansfeld was, in 1814, added to the Prussian government of Merseburg. This county is interesting to Germans, as Eisleben and Mansfeld are situated in it. In the former Luther was born, in the latter he went to school.

MANSFIELD MOUNTAIN is the highest summit of the Green mountains, and the most elevated mountain in Vermont. The elevation of the north peak, called the Chin, above the state-house at Montpelier, is 4051 feet; above the ocean, 4279; elevation of the south peak, called the Nose, above the state-house, 3755; above the ocean, 3983. The mountain is situated in Mansfield and Sterling, about 25 miles from Burlington.

MANSFIELD, William Murray, earl of, the fourth son of David, lord Stormont, was born at Perth, in Scotland, March 2, 1705. He received his education at Westminster school, and Christ-church, Oxford. He then made the grand tour, and, on his return, became a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, after the usual term of probation, was called to the bar. He gradually made his way to eminence in his profession, and, in 1742, was appointed solicitor-general, about which time he also obtained a seat in parliament. After distinguishing him. self as an advocate at Edinburgh, in 1743, and as one of the managers of the in peachment of lord Lovat, in 1747, he se ceeded sir Dudley Ryder as attorn

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general in 1754, and as chief-justice of the king's bench in 1756; soon after which he was created baron Murray, of Mansfield. For a few months, in 1757, he held the office of chancellor of the exchequer. During that interval, he effected a coalition of parties, which led to the administration of Pitt, afterwards lord Chatham. The same year, he declined the offer of the great seal, as he did twice afterwards. A change of parties in the cabinet, in 1765, which introduced into office the marquis of Rockingham and his friends, for awhile threw lord Mansfield into the ranks of the opposition. The year 1770 was memorable for attacks on his character in a judicial capacity, in both houses of parliament, which, however, led to no serious result. On the trial of Woodfall, for publishing Junius's Letters, and on some other occasions, he showed himself the zealous supporter of government. In October, 1776, he was advanced to the dignity of an earl of Great Britain. During the riots in London, June, 1780, his house was attacked by the Anti-Catholic mob, and his valuable collection of books and manuscripts fell a sacrifice to the fury of the multitude, by whom the mansion was burnt to the ground. He continued for some years longer to exercise his judicial functions. In 1788, he resigned his office of chiefjustice; and the remainder of his life was spent in retirement, principally at his seat at Caen-wood, near Hampstead. He died March 20, 1793. As a politician, lord Mansfield was a favorer of high maxims of government in general; and in the law of libel, he supported the opinion, that the jury is the judge of the fact only, and not of the law. He was, however, an enemy to violent exertion of power, as well as a friend to religious toleration. On various occasions, he opposed vexatious prosecutions, under intolerant laws, and voted in favor of the bill for the relief of the Roman Catholics. His idees of legislation were, on many points, liberal. As an orator, he display. ed more of persuasive elegance than of boldness and force; but he might fairly have contested the palm of eloquence with any of his contemporaries, except lord Chatham. In argument he was acute. Lord Ashburton used to say, that when he was wrong, the faults of his reasoning were not easily detected; and when he was right, he was irresistible. His fame rests chiefly on his conduct as a judge. He would not accept of the legal compensation to which he was entitled

for the destruction of his property in 1780 There is a life of him by Holliday (4to., 1797), and by Th. Roscoe, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia.

MANSLAUGHTER. (See Homicide.)

MANSO, John Caspar Frederic, born in the duchy of Gotha, May 26, 1759, and died June 6, 1826, in Breslau, where he had been, since 1790, pro-rector, and since 1793, rector of the Mary Magdalen gymnasium. He wrote a good deal in prose and poetry, but his most important works are, History of the Prussian State since the Peace of Hubertsburg (Frankfort on the Maine, 1819 et seq., 3 vols.), and a History of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy (Breslau, 1824), both in German. MANTCHOOS, or MANTCHEWS. Mandshures.)

(See

MANTEGNA, Andrew, one of the most celebrated of the early painters, was born at Padua, in 1431. His master, Squarcione, was induced by the talents which he displayed to adopt him as a son. The youth employed himself principally in drawing from antiques, and, at the age of 16, painted a picture for the grand altar in the church of St. Sophia, at Padua. Mantegna soon after entered the service of Lodovico Gonzaga, at Mantua, where he opened a school. Here he painted his great picture, the Triumph of Julius Cæsar, for the exhibition of which a palace was erected in Mantua. It consists of several pictures, which have since been transferred to Hampton court. Gonzaga conferred on him the honor of knighthood in reward for his merit. Innocent VIII invited the artist to Rome, to paint in the Belvedere, and he afterwards executed a number of capital works. One of the latest and best was the Madonna della Victoria, now in the Louvre at Paris, in which Giovanni Francesco Gonzaga is seen returning thanks for the victory gained by him over the forces of Charles VIII (1496). There are several other of his works in the Louvre, and an Annunciation in the Dresden gallery. He died at Mantua in 1506. Mantegna excelled in perspective, which was then a rare merit. His manner was stiff and dry, and his imitation of the ancient is everywhere manifest. His son, Francesco, was also a painter.

MANTELETS, in the art of war; a kind of movable parapets, nade of planks about three inches thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almost six feet, generally cased with tin, and set upon little wheels, so that in a siege they may be driven before the pioneers, and serve

as blinds to shelter them from the enemy's small shot.

MANTINEA; one of the most ancient, and, with Tegea, most important cities of Arcadia, on the frontier of Argolis, on the little river Ophis. The modern Tripolizza q. v.) is built of the ruins of the ancient cities of Megalopolis, Tegea, Mantinea and Pallantium. Mantinea was known for its wealth, and famous for the battles fought near it, one B. C. 418, in the 14th year of the Peloponnesian war, the result of which battle was, that Argos seceded from Athens, and joined Sparta; the other, fought B. C. 363, by Epaminondas, against the Peloponnesians. Epaminondas (q. v.) was victorious, but fell. A third battle was fought near Mantinea, B. C. 206, between Machanides, tyrant of Lacedæmon and Philopomen, general of the Achæan league. The latter was victorious, and slew the tyrant with his own hand.

MANTIS. Few of the insect tribe have attracted more attention than these curious productions of nature, from their singular forms, and still more singular habits. From the manner in which they stretch out their fore legs, they have acquired the reputation of diviners, and because they often rest on their hind legs, folding the anterior pair over their breast, the superstitious have supposed them in the act of prayer; hence they are called, in Languedoc, where they are common, by the name of prie-dieu. The genus mantis has been separated, by modern entomologists, into several distinct genera, viz. mantis, spectrum, phasma and phyllium. The first of these contains the celebrated soothsayer (M. religiosa), which, as has been said, is vulgarly considered as possessing miraculous powers. This superstition appears to extend to almost every part of the world in which these insects are found. The Turks regard them as under the especial protection of Allah, and the Hottentots pay divine honors to them. The dry leaf mantis (phyllium siccifolia), in its shape and color, is remarkable, invariably suggesting the idea of a dry and withered leaf. Their manners, also, in addition to their structure, aid in the delusion. They often remain on trees, for hours, without motion; then, suddenly springing into the air, appear to be blown about like dry leaves. The Indians of South America, where these insects are very common, believe that they really are attached to the tree at first, and that when they have arrived at maturity, they loosen themselves, and crawl or fly away. In 22 *

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some parts of the East Indies, a species of mantis is kept, like game cocks, for the purpose of fighting, which they do with great ferocity.

MANTISSA. (See Logarithms.)

MANTUA; a delegation of Austrian Italy, in the government of Milan, lying on the north of the duchies of Modena and Parma; population, 239,436; square miles, 886. The Po passes through it, and it is also watered by the Oglio, Mincio, Secchia, &c. The surface is very level; the soil of great fertility; the principal product grain; others rice, hemp, flax, fruit and vines. The late duchy of Mantua, or the Mantuan, was of larger extent than the present province. It was annexed to the Cisalpine republic (q. v.) in 1797, and formed a department of the kingdom of Italy until 1814, when it was ceded to Austria, as a part of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. (See Lombardy.)

MANTUA (Italian, Mantova); a city of Austrian Italy, an episcopal see, and capital of a delegation, formerly a duchy of the same name; 70 miles S. W. of Venice, 70 S. E. of Milan; lon. 10° 46′ E., lat. 45° 9 N.; population, 25,000, among which are about 2000 Jews. It is satuated on two islands formed by the expansion of the waters of the Mincio, one about a mile square, the other a little more than half that size: on this is the most closely built part of the city. The extensive suburb of Cerese is on the main land. Mantua is well fortified, and is, by nature and art, one of the strongest places in Europe. Most of the streets are broad, regular and well paved; the houses of stone, and generally well built; and the public squares spacious and elegant. It contains a magnificent cathedral, numerous churches, convents and hospitals, a public library, an academy of arts and sciences, a gallery of antiquities, and sev eral valuable collections of paintings. Other public objects of interest are the palaces of justice, of Gonzaga, and of T, so called from its form; the church of St. Andrew; the Corte, with its halls; the famous bust of Virgil; and the buildings of the university, which was founded here in 1625. The silk manufactures were formerly flourishing, and are still considerable; those of leather and woollen are also important. In the summer and autumn, the city is unhealthy, on account of the marshes in its neighborhood. (See Mal' Aria.) It is a place of great antiquity, said to be older than Rome, and, a cen tury ago, contained about 50,000 inhabi

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tants. Virgil was born at Andes (now Pietola), in the vicinity.

MANUEL, Jacques Antoine, one of the most eloquent and intrepid defenders of French liberty, was born in 1775, at Barcelonette, in the department of the Lower Alps, and was educated at the college of Nimes. He entered as a volunteer in one of the battalions of the requisition in 1793, and rose to the rank of captain. After the peace of Campo-Formio, he quitted the army, studied law, was admitted to the bar at Aix, and soon acquired a high reputation for talent. In 1815, he was elected to the chamber of deputies which was convoked by Napoleon, and after the abdication of that monarch, M. Manuel strenuously contended for the rights of the young Napoleon. He also moved a spirited protest against the force which was used by the allies to bring about the rescoration of the Bourbons. This was, of course, an unpardonable crime, and an opportunity was found to display, at least, the disposition for punishing him. In 1815, he settled at Paris, and in the followng year, applied for admission to the Paris bar, that he might be entitled to plead in the courts. The council of discipline, as it is called, consulted the members of the bar at Aix as to their opinion of his character, in the hope of finding something against him; but, though their answer was favorable, the council refused to comply with his request. This refusal was repeated in 1816. In 1818, he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies by three departments, and became one of the most formidable opponents of the ministers, speaking extemporaneously with great facility-a talent possessed by few of the French deputies. On the opening of the budget in 1819, he delivered a speech which produced a very lively sensation, and was printed by order of the chamber. "Our political organization," said he, "is at once deficient in its municipal system, which is its natural basis; in the national guard, which must be our protection in peace, our defence in war; in the jury, without which the liberty of the press is an empty shadow; and in the responsibility of officers, which is the safeguard of all rights." In the ensuing sessions, he continued, in a series of bold and eloquent speeches, to oppose the arbitrary measures which then characterized the policy of the French government. On the exclusion of Grégoire (q. v.), on the bills for suspending the liberty of person and of the press, on the laws of election, on the reform of the jury, the organization of the

council of state, colonial legislation, public instruction, &c., he maintained the rights of the nation, and defended the charter in spite of the menaces, murmurs, interruptions and calumnies of the royalist faction. Calm and immovable, yet fervid and ardent, his courage and eloquence were always victorions over the violence of his enemies. During the new elections, in 1823, the greatest efforts were made to prevent his being chosen, and after the election a plan was formed for excluding hin, as unworthy of a seat. This being found impracticable, his enemies determined to effect his expulsion, and a pretext was found in his first speech of the session, on the question of the Spanish war. In the outset he was called to order; the president pronounced him in order; he was again interrupted by loud cries; he was accused of defending regi cide; his expulsion was demanded; he was prevented from explaining or proceeding, and the president, unable to restore order, was obliged to adjourn the chamber. The next day, Labourdonnaye moved his expulsion; Manuel defended himself, in an eloquent speech, from the charge brought against him. The motion was sustained and referred to March 3; on that day, Manuel protested against the power of the chamber to expel a representative of the nation, but his expulsion was voted by a majority. On the next day, he again took his seat, and, being required by the president to withdraw, replied that he should yield only to force. The session was then suspended for an hour, the members of the left side remaining in their seats. In this interval the huissier (sergeant at arms) read to him an order of the president requiring him to leave the hall; but his reply was as before, "I shall yield only to force." The huissier called in a detachment of the national guard, which refused to act; and a body of the gendarmerie was introduced. On being directed by the commanding officer to retire, he refused, and the order was issued to the gendarmes to arrest him. As they approached, he rose and expressed himself ready to follow them, the members present accompanying him. Manuel was again chosen to the chamber in 1824 He died in 1827, and was buried in the Père Lachaise, some obstacles which were interposed to the solemnization of his obsequies being surmounted by the firmness and prudence of his friends.

MANUMISSION, among the Romans; the solemn ceremony by which a slave was emancipated. (See Freedman.) Con