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ter-house, wnence he removed to University college, Oxford, where he took the degree of M. A. in 1752. In 1761, he obtained a seat in parliament, and was made under-secretary of state. In 1766, he was named a lord of the admiralty, from which board he subsequently removed to that of the treasury. In 1772, he was appointed vice-treasurer of Ireland, and was rewarded with the sinecure of the clerkship of the Pells, purchased back from Mr. Fox. In 1778, he was made secretary at war, and, on the dissolution of the administration of lord North, joined that portion of it which supported Mr. Pitt, under whose auspices he became president of the board of trade, which office he held in conjunction with the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster, given him in 1786. In the same year (1786), he was also elevated to the peerage, by the title of baron Hawkesbury, of Hawkesbury, in the county of Gloucester; and, in 1796, ho was created earl of Liverpool. He remained president of the board of trade until 1801, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until 1803. His death took place on the 7th December, 1808, at which time he held the sinecures of collector of the customs inwards of the port of London, and clerk of the Pells in Ireland. The earl of Liverpool for a long time shared in all the obloquy attached to the confidential friends of the Bute administration, and, in a particular manner, was thought to enjoy the favor and confidence of George III, of whom it was usual to regard him as the secret adviser. The earl of Liverpool was the author of the following works-a Discourse on the Establishment of a Constitutional Force in England (1756); a Discourse on the Conduct of Great Britain in Regard to Neutral Nations, during the present War (1758); a Collection of Treaties, from 1646 to 1673 (3 vols., 8vo., 1785); a Treatise on the Coins of the Realm, in a Letter to the King (1805).

LIVERPOOL, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of; son of the preceding; born in 1770, and died in 1828; known in public life, from 1796 to 1808, as lord Hawkesbury; from 1812 to 1827, first lord of the treasury. He was educated at the Charter-house; on leaving which, he was entered of Christ-church, Oxford. His father directed his reading and studies in political economy, and other branches of political science at this time; and, on leaving the university, Mr. Jenkinson set out on his travels. He was in Paris at the outbreak of the French revolution, and, in

1791, took his seat in the house of com mons, in which he distinguished himself as a debater and an efficient member of the house. In 1801, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs, and, two years later, was called to the house of peers as baron Hawkesbury. On the death of Pitt (1806), the premiership was offered him, but declined; and, after the short administration of Fox, his former office was again conferred on him, in the Percival ministry. After the assassination of Mr. Percival, lord Liverpool (as he had become, on the death of his father, in 1808) accepted (1812), though reluctantly, the post of premier. His administration was marked by great moderation and pru dence at home, but the foreign depart ment bore the different impress of lord Londonderry (q. v.) and Canning. (q. v.) Lord Liverpool lost popularity by the trial of the queen, which was closed, as is well known, by the abandonment of the bill of pains and penalties, on the part of the ministers. It was on this occasion, that earl Grey demanded of him "how he dared, upon such evidence, to bring forward a bill of degradation, the discussion of which had convulsed the country from one end to the other, and might have been fatal to her independent existence." A paralytic stroke, in the beginning of 1827, having rendered him incapable of attending to business, Mr. Canning succeeded him in the premiership.

LIVERWORT. The plant so called is the hepatica triloba of Pursh. Like many other supposed remedies, it has had a temporary reputation for the cure of pulmonary consumption. It is a pretty little plant, flowering very early in spring, and is common to the U. States and Europe. There are two varieties, one with obtuse, and the other with acute lobes to the leaves.

LIVERY (livrée). At the plenary courts in France, under the sovereigns of the second and third races, the king delivered to his servants, and also to those of the queen and the princes, particular clothes. These were called livrées, because they were delivered at the king's expense. The expense of these donations, together with that of the table, the equipages, the presents for the nobles and the people, amounted to an immense sum. A prudent economy afterwards suppressed these plenary courts, but the livery of the servants still remained. In London, by livery or livery men, are meant those freemen of the city who belong to the 91 city companies, which embrace the various trades of the

metropolis; they have the exclusive privilege of voting at the election of members of parliament and of the lord mayor. Out of this body, the common council, sheriffs, aldermen, and other officers for the government of the city, are elected.

LIVIA DRUSILLA; wife of the emperor Augustus, daughter of Livius Drusus Claudianus, who lost his life in the battle of Philippi, on the side of Brutus and Cassius. She was first married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two sons, viz. Drusus and Tiberius. When she fled with her husband to Italy, before the triumvir Octavianus, she narrowly escaped being made prisoner by him, who afterwards became her husband. From that place, she went with her son to Antony, in Achaia, and when her husband was reconciled to Augustus, returned to Rome. Here her personal and mental charms made such an impression on the triumvir, that he repudiated his wife Scribonia, in order to marry her, and, in the 715th year of Rome, tore her, though pregnant, from her husband. Livia knew how to use her power over the heart of Augustus, for the attainment of her ambitious purposes, and effected the adoption of one of her sons as successor to the throne. At her instigation, Julia, the only daughter of Augustus, was banished. Ancient writers, too, almost universally ascribe to her the deaths of the young Marcellus, of Lucius Cæsar, and the banishment of Agrippa Posthumus. Augustus, having no longer any near relatives, yield ed to her requests in favor of Tiberius. In the emperor's will, Livia was constituted the first heiress, was received into the Julian family, and honored with the name of Augusta. She was also made chief priestess in the temple of the deified Augustus, and many coins were struck in her honor. But Tiberius proved himself very ungrateful to his mother, to whom he was indebted for every thing, and would not allow the senate to bestow upop her any further marks of respect. He did not, however, treat her in public with disrespect; but, when he left Rome, in order to gratify his lusts in an uninterrupted solitude, he fell into a violent dispute with her, did not visit her in her last sickness, would not see her body after her death, and forbade divine honors to be paid to her memory.

LIVINGSTON, Philip, one of the signers of the American Declaration of Independence, was born at Albany, in New York, January 15, 1716, was graduated at Yale college, in 1737, and became a 3

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merchant in New York. In 1759, he was returned a member to the general assembly of the colony, and afterwards to the general congress of 1774, and to the congress that issued the Declaration of Independence. In 1777, Mr. Livingston was a senator in the state legislature of New York. In 1778, he was again deputed to the general congress, where his efforts aggravated a dropsy of the chest. He died, June 12, 1778, at York, Pennsylvania, to which congress had retired.

LIVINGSTON, Robert R., an eminent American politician, was born in the city of New York, November 27, 1746. He was educated at King's college, and graduated in 1765. He studied and practised law in that city with great success. Near the commencement of the American revolution, he lost the office of recorder, on account of his attachment to liberty, and was elected to the first general congress of the colonies; was one of the committee appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence; in 1780, was appointed secretary of foreign affairs, and, throughout the war of the revolution, signalized himself by his zeal and efficiency in the revolutionary cause. (See his letters, in the Diplomatic Correspondence of the Revolution.) At the adoption of the constitution of New York, he was appointed chancellor of that state, which office he held until he went, in 1801, to France, as minister plenipotentiary, appointed by president Jefferson. He was received by Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul, with marked respect and cordiality, and, during a residence of several years in the French capital, the chancellor appeared to be the favorite foreign envoy. He conducted, with the aid of Mr. Monroe, the negotiation which ended in the cession of Louisiana to the U. States, took leave of the fust consul (1804), and made an extensive tour on the continent of Europe. On his return from Paris, as a private citizen, Napoleon, then emperor, presented to him a splendid snuff-box, with a miniature likeness of himself (Napoleon), painted by the celebrated Isabey. It was in Paris that he formed a friendship and close personal intimacy with Robert Fulton, whom he materially assisted with counsel and money, to mature his plans of steam navigation. (See Fulton, and Steam-Boat.) In 1805, Mr. Livings. ton returned to the U. States, and thence forward employed himself in promoting the arts and agriculture. He introduced into the state of New York the use of gypsum and the Merino race of sheep

LIVINGSTON, Brock holst, judge of the supreme court of the U. States, was the son of William Livingston, governor of New Jersey, and was born in the city of New York, November 25, 1757. He entered Princeton college, but, in 1776, left it for the field, and became one of the family of general Schuyler, commander of the northern army. He was afterwards attached to the suite of general Arnold, with the rank of major, and shared in the honor of the conquest of Burgoyne. In 1779, he accompanied Mr. Jay to the court of Spain, as his private secretary, and remained abroad about three years. On his return, he devoted himself to law, and was admitted to practise in April, 1783. His talents were happily adapted to the profession, and soon raised him into notice, and, ultimately, to eminence. He was called to the bench of the supreme court of the state of New York, January 8, 1802, and, in November, 1806, was transferred to that of the supreme court of the U. States, the duties of which station he discharged, with distinguished faithfulness and ability, until his death, which took place during the sittings of the court at Washington, March 18, 1823, in the 66th year of his age. He possessed a mind of uncommon acuteness and energy, and enjoyed the reputation of an accomplished scholar, and an able pleader and jurist, an upright judge, and a liberal patron of learning.

LIVIUS, Andronicus, the father of Roman poetry, by birth a Greek of Tarentum, first went to Rome at the commencement of the sixth century from the foundation of the city, as instructer to the children of Livius Salinator. He introduced upon the Roman stage, dramas after the Grecian model, and, besides several epic poems, wrote a translation of the Odyssey, in the old Saturnine verse. We have only a few fragments of his writings, which may be found in the Comici Latini, and the Corpus Poëtarum. (See Fabricius, Bib. Lat. iv, 1.; Tit. Livii, Hist. vii, 2.) LIVIUS, Titus, born at Padua, in the year of Rome 695 (59 B. C.), came from the place of his birth to Rome, where he attracted the notice of Augustus, after whose death he returned to his native town where he died A. D. 16. His his

tory of Rome, to which he devoted 20 years, rendered him so celebrated, that a Spaniard is said to have gone from Cadiz to Rome merely for the purpose of seeing him. Of the circumstances of his life we know little. He was called, by Augustus, the Pompeian, because he defended the character of Pompey, in his history; this, however, did not prevent his enjoying the patronage of the emperor till the time of his death. According to Suidas, Livy did not receive, during his lifetime, the applause which his history deserved, and it was not till after his death that full justice was rendered him. In the fifteenth century, his body was supposed to have been discovered at Padua, and a splendid monument was raised to his memory. His Roman history begins at the landing of Eneas in Italy, and comes down to the year of the city 744. His style is clear and intelligible, labored without affectation, diffusive without tediousness, and argumentative without pedantry. His descriptions are singularly lively and picturesque, and there are few specimens of oratory superior to that of many of the speeches with which his narratives are interspersed. Yet he was accused (see Quintilian, viii, 1) of provincialism ("patavinitas"). His whole work consisted of 140 or 142 books, of which we have remaining only the first 10, and those from the 21st to the 45th, or the first, third and fourth decades, and half of the fifth. In the first 10 books, the history extends to the year 460; the portion between the 21st and 45th books contains the account of the second Punic war (A. U. C. 536), and the history of the city to the year 586. In the year 1772, Bruns, while engaged in collecting various readings, discovered, in a codex rescriptus, in the Vatican, a fragment of the 91st book; but it is not of much importance. It was printed at Rome, and reprinted at Leipsic, in 1773. The epitome of the whole work, which has been preserved, has been ascribed, by some, to Livy, by others, to Florus. Following this outline, and deriving his facts from other credible sources of Roman history, Freinsheim composed his Supplement to Livy. The best editions of Livy are those of Gronovius (Amsterdam, 1679, 3 vols.), of Dranborch (Leyden, 1738-46, 4 vols.), and, among the later editions, those of Ernesti, Schäfer, Ruperti and Döring. The best English translation is that of George Baker (6 vols., 1797), which has been often reprinted in England and the U States.

LIVONIA. The Russian provinces upon the Baltic, viz. Livonia, Esthonia, Courland and Senigallia, early belonged to the Russian states, as tributaries, while they retained their own institutions, and were never protected by the Russians from hostile inroads. During the period when the Russian empire was in a state of confusion, they became independent, but were again reduced to subjection by Peter the Great. Livonia was little known to the rest of Europe till 1158, when some merchants of Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in Gothland, in search of new sources of commerce, were thrown upon the coasts of Livonia. The country was afterwards frequently visited by the people of Bremen, who soon formed settlements there. An Augustine friar, Meinhard, with other Germans, emigrated thither about 28 years after. He converted the inhabitants to Christianity, and was their first bishop. The third bishop after him, by name Albert, who advanced as far as the Dwina, first firmly established the foundations of the spiritual authority. He built the city of Riga, in the year 1200, and made it the see of the bishopric. At the close of this century, the Danish king, Canute VI, made himself master of these provinces, which were, however, given up by his successor, Wladimir III, for a sum of money, to the Teutonic knights, with whom the order of Brethren of the Sword, founded by Albert, in 1201, had been united, so that the dominion of the Teutonic order comprehended all the four provinces above mentioned. They were, however, too weak to hold them against the Russian czar, John II Wasiliwitch, who was bent upon reuniting them with the Russian empire, and the state was dissolved. Esthonia then placed itself under the protection of Sweden; Livonia was united to Poland; and Courland, with Semigallia, became a duchy, under Polish protection, which the last grand master of the Teutonic order held as a Polish fief. From this time, Livonia became a source of discord between Russia, Sweden and Poland, for near a century, from 1561 to 1660. At the peace of Oliva, in 1660, this province was ceded to Sweden by Poland, and it was again united to the province of Esthonia. (q. v.) By the peace of

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Nystadt, in 1721, both provinces were again united to the Russian empire. Livonia is bounded east by Ingria, south by Lithuania and Samogitia, west by the Baltic, and north by the gulf of Finland It is productive in grass and grain, and consists of two provinces, Esthonia and Livonia, of which the first lies upon the gulf of Finland, the last upon the borders of Courland and Poland. The Livonians, like the Lithuanians, are a branch of the Finns, and are, for the most part, in & state of servitude; but the grievous oppression, under which they were held by their tyrants, the nobility, has been much lightened by an imperial decree of 1804. Besides the original inhabitants, there are, in the country, many Russians, Germans and Swedes. The greater part are Lutherans; but Calvinists, Catholics, and the Greek church, enjoy liberty of worship. In 1783, the country was newly organized, and Livonia became the government of Riga, and Esthonia that of Revel. The name of Livonia was, however, restored by the emperor Paul, in 1797. It is, at present, divided into five circles. The government of Riga contains 20,000 square miles, and 980,000 inhabitants.-See the Essai sur l'Histoire de la Livonie, by count de Bray (Dorpat, 1817, 3 vols.), and Granville's Journey to St. Peters burg (1828).

LIVRE; an ancient French coin. Ths word is derived from the Latin libra (q. v.), a pound. It appears as early as 810 B. C. At first, the livre was divided into 20 solidos; afterwards into 10 sous; in Italy, into 20 soldi; in Spain, into 20 sueldos, as the old German pound into 20 schillinge, and the English into 20 shillings. The livre was, at first, of high value. The revolution changed the name into franc. (See Franc, and Coins.)

LIVY. (See Livius.)

LIZARD. All reptiles having a naked body, four feet and a tail, are vulgarly known under the name of lizards. Linnæus himself only constituted two genera of this numerous class of animalsdraco and lacerta; but more modern naturalists have greatly increased the number of genera. The following is the ar rangement followed by Cuvier in the last edition of his Règne animal :—