faces, which are capable of being perfectly developed on a plane, and, at the same time, approximating to the nature of a spherical surface. These projections have also been subjected to a great variety of modifications, which we cannot here explain. Other forms of tracing maps, which have not the developement of a figure for their basis, have been recommended: such is the proportional projection, in which the principal condition is to represent, by equal spaces, regions of equal extent. (See Mayer's Introduction to the Art of tracing Maps, in German; Puissant's Traité de Topographie.) In the choice of details to be introduced into a map, the author must be guided by the purpose of his delineations, and needs to be directed by experience, learning and judgment. One map is designed to show the limits of states, the positions of towns and cities, the subdivisions of the country into provinces, departments, counties, &c; another may be devoted more particularly to delineating the natural features of the region, its mountains, rivers, &c.; and details are selected accordingly. A military map should indicate every pass, ford, obstruction, &c., which may affect a march, facilitate or obstruct a manoeuvre. A nautical map, or chart, should iudicate every reef, sand-bank or rock, delineating, as far as possible, not only the irregularities of the bottom, but the direction, &c., of the shores. To the seaman, the nature of the bottom of the sea is interesting only within soundings; but to the physical geographer, it is also important, as illustrative of the whole system of mountains and geological formations on the globe. There are also historical, botanical, mineralogical, &c., maps, designed to illustrate some particular point. Elementary maps for instruction are not intended to advance the science by the publication of new details, but should be adapted to convey the known truths of the science in a simple form; and, for this purpose, a numerous series of small maps is better than a few, constructed on a large scale, with minute exactness. In collecting and combining details, astronomical observations and geodesical measurements must be employed, when possible, at least for the prominent points, and, where the author is deserted by these, the accounts of intelligent travellers, of former geographers, &c., must supply the deficiencies.-Maps are engraved on tin, copper, and other metals; auso, sometimes, in wood, and, of late, have been lithographed with much success for certain purposes. Soon after the inven

tion of the art of printing, an attempt was made to print maps like musical notes, by Sweynheim; later by Bückink, in 1478; in 1777, by Breitkopf, in Leipsic. Haas, at Basil, produced pretty good specimens (see his Carte des Partages de Pologne en 1772, 1793 et 1795); and, quite recently, the same has been attempted in Boston; but the main object of cheap maps thus made, chiefly for children,— an impressive and clear survey,-seems not entirely attained. If we consider the drawing of the country ordered by Joshua (Joshua xlviii, 9) as a map, then the origin of geographical projection is very old. We find traces of maps with the Egyptians, in the times of Sesostris (q. v.), who caused his hereditary dominions and his conquests to be represented on tablets for his people. Scylax, Eratosthenes (270 B. C.) and Hipparchias (130 B. C.) followed him. Certain traces of maps are found in the times of Aristagoras of Miletus, and Socrates, who, by way of a reproof to the pride of Alcibiades, caused him to search for his own estates on a map. The Romans, at their triumphs, had pictures of the conquered countries carried before them, and had drawings of their territories in their archives, as Varro says. Cæsar himself took part in the surveying of different countries. There is a map extant, perhaps of the times of Diocletian, certainly not later than Theodosius, a military map, for the use of the Roman army, called the Peutinger table, from having belonged to a learned scholar of this name. (See Peutinger.) Ptolemy drew maps according to the stereographic projection. Agathodæmon, an artist of Alexandria, drew 26 maps for the geogra phy of Ptolemy, and with him the first period of the history of maps is generally closed. They were drawn from the accounts of travellers without well settled principles. The second period, which extends to the beginning of the sixteenth century, the time of the famous Behaim (q. v.), can show metal globes, plain spheres and maps. Nicolaus Donis corrected the maps of Ptolemy, had them cut in wood, and added five new ones. Sebastian Munster follow ed in his steps. In the third period, maps became more and more perfect. Particular credit is due to those of Abraham Ortelius, Gerhard Mercator (born 1512, died 1594), William and John Blau (who produced 616 maps), Sanson, Schenk, Visschen, De Witt, Hondius. After them, John Baptist Homann became famous, who consulted the most distinguished astronomers and mathematicians, and pre

pared 200 new maps. In regard to the character of the early maps, and early geography in general, the chapter on the progress of geographical science in Lardner's Maritime and Inland Discovery contains valuable information. The following facts are taken from that source. The most eminent geographers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were men of learning, who, in the spirit of that age, adopted with zeal and obstinacy all the mistakes committed by the writers of antiquity, which thereby acquired an authority that was very difficult to be overthrown. The first requisite, in a correct system of geography, is to determine accurately the relative position of places; but, in this, the ancients were guilty of gross errors. The method which they employed to determine the latitude of places admitted of but little precision, and their determination of longitudes was still more erroneous. The countries with which the Greek and Roman writers were best acquainted were those on the Mediterranean, yet Constantinople is placed by Ptolemy two degrees north of its true position. The Arab writers increased this error to four degrees. The breadth of the Mediterranean was also increased far beyond the truth. Carthage is made 4° 32 south of its true place. The errors in longitude were far greater, the length of the Mediterranean being made 62° instead of 41° 28' in other words, it was made 1400 English miles longer than the reality. This enormous error continued in the maps of Europe, with little variation, till the beginning of the last century. The difference in the estimated longitude of Rome and Nuremberg, two of the best known places in Europe, varied above 500 miles, from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. The error is still more remarkable, as existing in the longitude of places which are nearly in the same latitude. Cadiz and Ferrara, for instance, were placed nearly 600 miles too far asunder; and this error continued till the close of the seventeenth century. Errors of a wilder kind, originating in credulity rather than in inaccurate observation, found a place in the maps of the middle ages, and were slowly banished at a recent date by the improvements of astronomy and navigation. In a map of the world published at Venice, in 1546, by Giacomo, Asia and America are united in lat. 38°. Thibet is placed at the junction of the two continents. In another. Venetia. map, by Tramezini, dated 1554, the distance from Quinsai, in China, to the gulf of Califor23

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west.

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nia, in America, is only 31°, the two con tinents being unduly stretched some thousand miles respectively to the east and the The best maps were long deficient in correct distances, particularly in longitude. South America is represented by Fischer as 62°, or above 4300 miles across, while North America, on the same map, extends from the mouth of the St. Lawrence on the east, to New Albion on the west, through a space of 150°, or above 9000 miles. Hondius, in 1630, ventured, indeed, to abridge Asia of the undue dimensions given it by Ptolemy, and to reduce its extension towards the east to 165°. But his example was not followed; and many instances might be adduced, in which the authority of Ptolemy, who was but slightly acquainted with one half of the globe, was blindly submitted to in an age when Europeans wandered over its whole surface. A great step was made towards the attainment of accuracy, in regard to longitudes, when Galileo discovered, in 1610, the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. Until, however, Cassini published his tables, in 1668, nothing accurate was known respecting their eclipses and revolutions. Cassini labored indefatigably to improve geography, by allying it strictly with astronomy, and loudly complained that it needed a total reform. Delisle, his friend, set seriously about the task of reconstructing the geographical edifice. In the year 1700, he published his map of the world, as well as separate maps of Europe, Asia and Africa, boldly departing from the examples of his predecessors, and making free use of the materials which the improvements in astronomy had placed within his reach; so that he may be considered the creator of modern geography. He died in 1726. His distinguished disciple, D'Anville, appointed geographer of the king of France at the age of 22, was remarkable for correctness of judgment and fineness of penetration. Though he proceeded much on conjecture, he rarely erred. He completed what Delisle had begun. (For further information on the subject of geography and geographical works, see Geography, and Gazetteer; see, also, Degrees, Measurement of.)-The whole number of maps which have been published may amount to from 23,000 to 24,000, of which, how ever, hardly 4600 are original. The first maps engraved on metal were made by Bückink and Schweynheym, in 1478: the first cut in wood, by L. Holl, in 1482. (See Hauber's Essay towards a circumstantial History of Maps (in German, Ulm,'

1724); Hübner's (q. v.) Museum Geographicum.) Among the maps prepared of late years in Great Britain, those of Arrowsmith are distinguished. Tanner, in this country, is well known for his valuable maps of the U. States.

MAPLE (acer); a genus of plants, peculiar to the northern and temperate parts of the globe, consisting of trees or arborescent shrubs, having opposite and more or less lobed leaves, and small flowers, which are either axillary or disposed in racemes. The fruit consists of two capsules united at base, each containing a single seed, and terminated by a wing-like membrane. In one instance, the leaves are compound and pinnated. Twentyseven species are known, of which twelve inhabit North America, six are found in Europe, six very beautiful ones in the islands of Japan, and the remainder in different parts of Asia. The red maple (A. rubrum), is one of the most common and most extensively diffused of our native trees. It grows in moist situations, from lat. 49° to the gulf of Mexico, both in the Atlantic and Western States. The bright red blossoms, appearing at a time when there is no vestige of a leaf in the forest, render this tree very conspicuous at the opening of spring; and again, at the close of the season, it is not less conspicuous, from the scarlet color which the leaves assume when they have been touched by the frost. The leaves are cordate at base, unequally toothed, fivelobed, and glaucous beneath. It attains the height of 70 feet, with a diameter of three or four at the base. The wood is easily turned, and when polished acquires a silken lustre; it is hard and fine-grained, and is employed chiefly for the lower parts of Windsor chairs, sometimes for saddle trees, wooden dishes, and similar purposes. The variety called curled maple, from the accidental undulation of the fibres, is one of the most ornamental woods known, and bedsteads made of it exceed in richness and lustre, the finest mahogany. It is sometimes employed for inlaying, but its most constant use is for the stocks of rifles and fowling pieces. The white maple is chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its foliage, the leaves being larger and much more deeply lobed than those of the preceding, and glaucous beneath. The flowers are inconspicuous, and greenish yellow, and the fruit is larger than in any other of our species. It is not found so far south as the preceding, and is most abundant west of the mountains its range extending beyond the

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sources of the Mississippi, and within the basin of the Arkansaw. It attains large dimensions, having a trunk five, and sometimes eight feet in diameter. The wood is little used, but the charcoal is preferred by batters in some places. The sugar maple (A. saccharinum) is one of the most valuable of our trees. Besides the sugar which is obtained from the sap, and which might be made in quantities sufficient to supply the whole consumption of the U. States, the wood affords excellent fuel; and from the ashes are procured four fifths of the potash which forms such an important item in our exports. sugar is superior in quality to the common brown sugar of the West Indies, and when refined, equals the finest in beauty. It is, however, little used, except in the country, and even here will probably give place, at some future time, to that manufactured from the juice of the cane. The sap of all the maples contains a certain quantity of sugar, but in none, that we know of, does it exist in so great a proportion as in this and the following species. A single tree of this species will yield five or six pounds of sugar. The leaves are smooth, and five-lobed, with the lobes sinuately dentate. It grows in cold and moist situations, between the 42d and 48th parallels of latitude, and on the Alleghanies to their south-western termination, extending westward beyond lake Superior, and is abundant in the northern parts of Pennsylvania, the western portion of New York, Upper Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and in the northern parts of New England. The potash is exported from the two principal northern ports, New York and Boston. To the latter place the wood is brought in great quantities from Maine for fuel, and is esteemed hardly inferior to hickory. In Maine and New Hampshire, it is employed in shipbuilding, for the keel, and likewise in the lower frame; for the axletrees and spokes of wheels; and sometimes, in the country, for the frames of houses. A variety, with undulations, like the curled maple, and containing besides small spots, is called bird's eye maple, and forms exceedingly beautiful articles of furniture. The charcoal has the preference in the forges of Vermont and Maine. The black sugar maple (A. nigrum) is a more southern tree than the preceding, and is exceedingly abundant on the Ohio and the other great rivers of the West. It has not been observed north of latitude 44°, and does not extend into the lower parts of the more southern states. The leaves resem

ble, in form, those of the sugar maple, but may be distinguished by the pubescence of the inferior surface. It attains very lofty dimensions. The wood is little used, but is preferred for the frames of Windsor chairs, and furnishes the best fuel, after the hickories. The sap yields abundance of sugar, which is manufactured to a vast amount annually. The ash-leaved maple, or box elder (A. negundo), abounds chiefly west of the Alleghanies, where it has a very wide range, extending from lat. 53° to the gulf of Mexico, and also within the chains of the Rocky Mountains. It is easily known by its compound leaves, and becomes a large tree. The wood is fine-grained, but is little used. The striped maple, or moose-wood (A. striatum) is a large shrub, chiefly remarkable from the white lines on the bark, which give it an elegant appearance. It is a northern plant, and in some places the cattle are turned loose into the woods to browse on the young shoots at the beginning of spring. The wood has been sometimes employed for inlaying mahogany, but it is of inferior quality. Six other species of maple inhabit the territory of the U. States; one of them is found on the rocky Mountains, and another in the basin of the Oregon river. The wood of the common European maple is much used by turners, and on account of its lightness is frequenty employed for musical instruments, particularly for violins.

MAPPE-MONDES; the French term for maps of the world. (See Maps.)

MARA, Gertrude Elizabethi, daughter of a Mr. Schmähling (born, according to some, in 1750, in Cassel; others say in 1743, at Eischbach, in the territory of Eisenach; others say in 1749), was one of the greatest singers of our time. Her father, city musician in Cassel, instructed her in music. When she was seven years old, she played the violin admirably. In her 10th year, she performed before the queen, in London, whither she had accompanied her father, and where she remained two or three years. In her 14th year, she appeared as a singer at court. In 1766, she went with her father to Leipsic, and received an appointment there. Frederic the Great, though much prejudiced against German performers, was induced to invite her, in 1770, to Potsdam, his residence, showed great admiration of her powers, and gave her an appointment immediately, with 3000 Prussian dollars salary (about $2000). In 1774, she married a violoncello player named Mara, a man of careless habits, who in

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volved her in many difficulties, and she was dismissed by the king, in 1780. In 1782, she went to Vienna and Paris, where she received the title of a first concert singer of the queen. In 1784, she went to London, where she was received with the greatest enthusiasm. For 13 evenings' performance at the Pantheon concert, she received 1000 guineas. In 1785 and 1786, she was engaged for the London opera, and appeared at one of the annual concerts in honor of Handel, as first singer, and, in the winter of 1785 and 1786, was established at the London opera. But her obstinacy offended as much as her powers delighted. In 1802, she went to Paris, and in 1803, to Germany. At a later period, she went to Petersburg, and, in 1808, she was at Moscow, where she is said to have married her companion Florio, after the death of Mara, from whom she had been separated long before. By the burning of Moscow, she lost her house and fortune; she therefore went to Reval, and gave lessons in music. In 1819, she went through Berlin to England, and, in 1821, returned to Esthonia. The latest accounts of her were, that she celebrated her birthday at Reval, February 23, 1831, having completed her 83d year, on which occasion Göthe offered her a poetical tribute. The fame of this singer is founded not only on the strength and fullness of her tone, and the extraordinary compass of her voice, which extends from G to the triple-marked f (nearly three octaves), but also on the admirable ease, quickness and spirit, with which she sung the most difficult passages, and her simple and enchanting expression. in the adagio. Her singing of Handel's airs-for instance, "1 know that my Redeemer liveth"-in the Messiah, was particularly celebrated.

MARABOOTS; among the Berbers (q. v.) of northern Africa, a sort of saints, or sorcerers, who are held in high estimation, and who exercise, in some villages, a despotic authority. They distribute amulets, affect to work miracles, and are thought to exercise the gift of prophecy. The rich presents which they receive from a superstitious people, enable them to live with a good deal of pomp, often keeping an armed force, and maintaining a numerous train of wives and concubiues. They make, indeed, no pretensions to abstinence or self-denial.

MARACAYBO; a town of Colombia, capi tal of the department of Zulia (see Colom bia), formerly capital of the province of Maracaybo, in Venezuela; lon. 71° 17′ W.; lat. 10° 13′ N. It is situated on the

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vestern side of the lake Maracaybo, about 20 miles from the sea. Most of the houses are covered with reeds; but the town is fortified, and the number of the inhabitants, in 1801, amounted to 22,000; which number was afterwards increased to 24,000, by an accession of refugees from St. Domingo. Here is a large parochial church, an hospital, and four convents. Large vessels cannot come up to the town, on account of the bar at the mouth of the harbor.

MARACAYBO, a lake, or rather gulf, of South America, about 200 miles long, and 70 broad, running from S. to N., empties itself into the North sea; the entrance is defended by strong forts. As the tide flows into this lake, its water is somewhat brackish, notwithstanding the many rivers it receives. It abounds with fish. The lake becomes narrower towards the middle, where the town is erected.

MARANHAM, or MARANHAO; a province of Brazil, between 1° 20′ and 10° 50′ S. latitude, and 45° 10′ and 53° 20′ W. longitude. It takes its name from an island situated at the mouth of three rivers, about 42 miles in circumference, which is fertile and well inhabited. The island itself is very difficult of access, by reason of the rapidity of the three rivers which form it; so that vessels must wait for proper winds and seasons to visit it. The natives have about twenty-seven hamlets called oc, or tave, each consisting of only four large huts, forming a square in the middle; but from 300 to 500 paces in length, and about 20 or 30 feet in depth; all being built of large timber, and covered from top to bottom with leaves, so that each may contain 200 or 300 inhabitants. The air is serene, seldom incommoded with storms, excessive drought, or moisture, except in the time of the periodical rains, which last from February to June. The soil of the province is very fertile, producing maize, cotton, sugar, rice, cocoa, pimento, ginger, &c. Population, 183,000, exclusive of the savages. The number of negroes is very great. The capital is Maranhao, or S. Luiz, with 12,000 inhabitunts; lat. 2° 29' S.; lon. 48° 45′ W.

MARANON. (See Amazon.)

MARAT, Jean Paul, whose name is odiously notorious in the most hateful times of the French revolution, was born at Boudry, in Neufchatel, in 1744, and studied medicine at Paris, where he practised his profession at the beginning of the revolutionary movements. Previous to. 1789, he had published several works on medical and scientific subjects, which

display considerable acuteness and learning. Of a small and even diminutive stature, with the most hideous features, in which some traits of insanity were perceptible, his whole appearance was calculated to excite at once terror, pity, ridicule and disgust. The first breath of the revolution converted the industrious and obscure doctor into an audacious demagogue, if not into a ferocious maniac. He began by haranguing the populace of one of the sections, but was treated with ridicule, and hustled by the crowd, who amused themselves with treading on his toes. Still he persisted, and finally succeeded, by his violence and energy, in commanding attention. Danton (q. v.) had just instituted the club of the Cordeliers (q. v.), and collected around him all the fiercest spirits, and Marat among the number, who became the editor of the Ami du Peuple, a journal which was the organ of that society, and soon became the oracle of the mob. As early as August 1789, he declared it necessary to hang up 800 of the deputies, with Mirabeau (q. v.) at their head, in the garden of the Tuileries, and, though he was denounced to the constitutional assembly, and proceeded against by the municipal authority of Paris, he contrived to escape, with the assistance of Danton, Legendre and others, and by concealing himself in the most obscure corner of the city. His journal, meanwhile, continued to appear regularly, was openly hawked about the streets, and assumed a more furious and atrocious tone, as he was inflamed by the prosecutions of the authorities, and encouraged by the 'increasing strength of his party. During the existence of the legislative assembly, he continued his outrages, figured among the actors of the 10th of August (see France), and in the assassinations of September (1792). He was a member of the terrible committee of public safety, then formed, although without any official capacity, and signed the circular to the departments, recommending a similar massacre in each. Marat was chosen a member of the convention; and in spite of the contempt and abhorrence with which he was received in that body, particularly by the Girondists (q. v.), who endeavored, at first, to prevent his taking his seat, and, afterwards, to effect his expulsion, soon found encouragement to proceed with his sanguinary denunciations. The ministers, genera Dumouriez (q. v.), and the Girondists, whom he contemptuously called hommes d'état, were the objects of his attack. Being charged, in the convention, with de