froin the commission of gross blunders. He was more skilled in the arts of simony and extortion. He sold the same benefice repeatedly, established the annates in 1372, and lavished the treasures thus procured on his relations, or in costly edifices; the fortification of the castle of St. Angelo, for instance, and the capitol. He supported the pretensions of Ladislaus to the throne of Naples, and, during the greatest part of his pontificate, was engaged in negotiations with his rivals at Avignon, Clement VII and Benedict XIII. He died in 1404.

BONIFACE VIII, Benedict Cajetan; born at Anagni, of an ancient Catalonian family; elected pope Dec. 24th, 1294. He received a careful education, studied jurisprudence, was a canon at Paris and Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and prothonotary of the pope at Rome. After Martin IV had elevated him to the dignity of a cardinal (1251), he went as legate to Sicily and Portugal, and was intrusted with embassies at several courts; in particular, with the charge of reconciling the king of Sicily with Alphonso of Arragon, and Philip the Fair with Edward I of England. After Coelestine V had resigned the papal dignity, at Naples, in 1294, at the instigation of B., the latter was chosen pope. He met with opposition from the cardinals of the family Colonna, and revenged himself by excommunicating them. His induction was magnificent. The kings of Hungary and Sicily held his bridle on his way to the Lateran, and served him, at table, with their crowns on their heads. B., however, was not successful in his first efforts for the increase of his power. The sovereignty of Sicily was denied him, and Frederic II was crowned king there in spite of his excommunication. He was equally unsuccessful in his attempt to arbitrate between England and France. The bulls which he issued, at this time, against king Philip the Fair of France, obtained no consideration. This was also the case with the interdict which he pronounced against him at the council of Rome, in 1302. Supported by the states and the clergy of France, Philip defended his royal rights against the encroachments of the pope. The pope was accused of duplicity, of simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of unchastity; and it was resolved to condemn and depose him at a general council at Lyons. Philip went still further: he sent Nogaret to Italy, in order to seize his person, and bring him to Lyons. Nogaret united himself for this purpose, with Sci

arra Colonna, who, with his whole fain ly, had been oppressed by B., and was in consequence, his enemy. B. fled to Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna surprised him. B., on this occasion, acted with spirit. "Since I am betrayed," said he, "as Jesus Christ was betrayed, I will die at least as a pope." He assumed the pontifical robes and the tiara, took the keys and the cross in his hand, and seated himself in the papal chair. But the insignia of his holy office did not save him from arrest. Nay, Colonna went so far as to use personal violence. B. remained in a disagreeable confinement for two days, when the Anagnese took up arms, and delivered him. After this, he departed to Rome, where he died, a month later, in 1303. From fear of poison, he had not taken any food during his captivity. This abstinence brought on a fever, which terminated fatally. Boldness in his views, and perseverance in his resolutions, cannot be denied to B.; but these qualities were stained by ambition, vanity, a spirit of revenge, and a mean pliability. Dante assigns to him, as guilty of simony, a place in hell, between Nicholas III and Clement V. B. founded, in 1300, the centennial jubilee, and enriched his treasury by the frequent sale of indulgences. He was an accomplished man, for the times in which he lived.

BONIFACE, St.; the apostle of Germany, who first preached Christianity, and spread civilization among the Germans. He was born in England (680), and his original name was Winfrid. In his 30th year, he was consecrated a priest. A great part of Europe, at this period, was inhabited by heathens, and several missionaries set out from England to convert them. Gallus, in 614, went to Allemania; Emmeran, who died 652, to Bavaria; Kilian, who died 689, to Franconia; Willibrord, who died 696, to Friesland; Sigfrid to Sweden; Swidvert to Friesland. In 716, B. conceived the plan of preaching Christianity among the Frieslanders; but was prevented by the war between Charles Martel and the king of Friesland, Radbod. He therefore returned to England, where he was chosen abbot. In 718, he went to Rome, where Gregory II authorized him to preach the gospel to all the nations of Germany. He commenced his labors in Thuringia and Bavaria, passed three years in Friesland, and journeyed through Hesse in Saxony, baptizing every where, and converting the pagan temples to Christian churches. In 723, he was invited to Rome, made a

bishop, by Gregory II, and recommended to Charles Martel and all princes and bishops. His name Winfrid he changed to B. In 724, he destroyed the oak sacred to Thor, near Geismar, in Hesse, founded churches and monasteries, invited from England priests, monks and nuns, and sent them to Saxony, Friesland and Bavaria. In 732, Gregory III made him archbishop and primate of all Germany, and authorized him to establish bishoprics, the only existing bishopric being the one at Passau. He founded those of Freisingen, Ratisbon, Erfurt, Barabourg (transferred afterwards to Paderborn), Würtzburg and Aichstadt. In 739, he restored the episcopal see of St. Rupert, at Salzburg. After the death of Charles Martel, he consecrated Pepin the Short king of the Franks, in Soissons, by whom he was made bishop of Mentz. He held eight ecclesiastical councils in Germany, founded the famous abbey of Fulda, and undertook, in 754, new journeys for the conversion of the infidels. He was killed at Dockum, in West Friesland, by some barbarians, in 755, in his 75th year. In Fulda, a copy of the Gospels, in his own handwriting, is to be seen. At the place where B. built, in 724, the first Christian church in North Germany, near the village of Altenburg, in the Thuringian forest, a monument has been erected to his memory, consisting of a candelabrum, 30 feet high. The most complete collection of the letters of B. was published at Mentz, 1789, folio.

BONN; capital of the Prussian government of Cologne, formerly the residence of the elector of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine, with 1109 houses, four Catholic, and, since 1817, one Protestant church. It contains 10,600 inhabitants, among whom are 200 Jews, who dwell in a particular street. B. was formerly fortified: the works were demolished in 1717. A lyceum was instituted here in 1802. An academy had been established in 1777, and, in 1786, erected into a university. This institution was superseded by the lyceum. The manufactures are not important. The commerce is chiefly in the hands of the Jews. A walk, with four rows of trees, and 1200 paces in length, leads to the beautiful palace of Clemensruhe, near the village of Poppelsdorf. B. contains the university of the Rhine, the charter of which was given, Oct. 18, 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the King of Prussia, who, at the same time, endowed it with an annual income of 80.000 Prussian dollars, 16,000 of which

are appropriated to the botanical garden The former residence of the elector of Cologne was bestowed on the university. It has been fitted up at great expense, and is surpassed, in extent and beauty, by no university buildings in Europe. It contains all the lecture halls, a library of more than 50,000 volumes, a museum of antiquities, a collection of casts of the principal ancient statues, a cabinet for natural philosophy, clinical institutions of uncommon extent and order to which will be added a Catholic theological seminary, and a convictorium (refectory). The paintings in the aula minor (among others, the great allegorical picture, the Christian Church) were executed by some pupils of Cornelius. To the liberality of the king, the university owes also an anatomical hall, a new riding-school, and an edifice, once a royal palace, in Poppelsdorf, ten minutes' walk from the city, which contains the mineralogical and zoological collections, and before which lies the botanical garden. Adjoining it are lands and buildings for the use of the agricultural institute. The tower of the old custom-house, which commands a fine view, is destined for an observatory. The king has also established here a printing press for Sanscrit, under the inspection of A. W. von Schlegel. The museum of German and Roman antiquities is under the direction of the same distinguished scholar. The teachers of the five aculties, of which the university consists, are more than fifty. Particular advantages are afforded for the education of young men intended for instructers. Many men distinguished in various branches of science are connected with the university. The historian Niebuhr has lately repaired thither to deliver lectures. The exertions of the government to collect in B. all the means of instruction, united with the charms of the place and the beauties of the scenery, have made the university in a short time very much frequented. In 1826, it contained 931 students, among whom were 110 foreigners.

BONN, Andrew, an anatomist, born at Amsterdam, in 1738, studied and received his degree at Leyden, His dissertation was the excellent treatise De Continuitatibus Membranarum, of which two famous physicians, Bichat and Wrisberg, have made use in their works. He finished his studies at Paris. In 1771, he returned to Amsterdam, where he delivered lectures. He had the three first numbers of the Thesaurus Hovianus Ossiun. Moròn

sorum engraved at his own expense. He died in 1818. His long life was devoted to the relief of the suffering, and to the education of skilful physicians and surgeons. As president of the Monnikhof institution for the investigation of the best remedies against the different kinds of hernia, he has likewise accomplished a great deal.

BONNER, Edmund, an English prelate of infamous notoriety, was the son of a peasant at Hanley in Worcestershire. He was educated at Pembroke college, Oxford, where he was made doctor of common law, in 1525. For his skill in business, he was patronised by cardinal Wolsey, from whom he received several clerical preferments. On the death of Wolsey, he acquired the favor of Henry VIII, who made him one of his chaplains, and sent him to Rome to advocate his divorce from queen Catharine. Here he conducted with so much intemperance, that the pope is said to have threatened to throw him into a caldron of boiling lead, on which he thought proper to return. In 1538, he was nominated bishop of Hereford, being then ambassador at Paris; but, before his consecration, he was translated to the see of London. At the time of the death of Henry, he was ambassador to the emperor Charles V, but returned the same year, when, refusing to take the oath of supremacy, he was deprived of his bishopric, to which, however, he was restored, on making submission. Still continuing to act with contumacy, he was, after a long trial, once more deprived of his see, and committed to the Marshalsea; from which prison, on the uccession of Mary, he was released, and once more restored by commission. During this reign, B. distinguished himself by a most sanguinary persecution of the Protestants, 200 of whom he was instrumental in bringing to the stake, whipping and torturing several of them with his own hands. When Elizabeth succeeded, he went, with the rest of the bishops, to meet her at Highgate, but, at the sight of him, she averted her countenance with an expression of horror. He remained, however, unmolested, until his refusal to take the oath of supremacy; on which he was once more committed to the Marshalsea, where he remained a prisoner for nearly 10 years, until his death, in 1569. He was buried at midnight, to avoid any disturbance on the part of the populace, to whom he was extremely obnoxious. B. was well versed n the canon law and was an able diplo

matist. He cannot, says a Catholic writer, be defended from the charge of extreme rigor and cruelty; yet he deserves credit for his firmness of principle, for his courage when in disgrace, and for the calmness and resignation with which he supported a long imprisonment.

BONNET, in fortification; an elevation of the parapet in the salient angles of a field retrenchment, or of a fortification, designed to prevent the enfilading of the front of the work, at the end of which it is situated. The bonnet accomplishes, however, only part of this object, and is subject, at least in field retrenchments, to the disadvantage, that the men destined for its defence are too much exposed to be taken in flank by the fire of the enemy, on account of the necessary elevation of the banquette (q. v.)—a fault which cannot occur in the works of a fortress which are well laid out.

BONNET, Charles, a natural philosopher and metaphysician, born at Geneva, in 1720, exchanged the study of the laws for that of natural history. His essay On Aphides, in which he proved that they propagated without coition, procured him, in his 20th year, the place of a corresponding member of the academy of sciences at Paris. Soon afterwards, he partook in the discoveries of Trembley respecting the polypus, and made interesting observations on the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies, and on the structure of the tape-worm. An active correspondence with many learned men in his own country and abroad, and too continued perseverance in labor, brought on an inflammation in his eyes, which prevented him from writing for more than two years. His active spirit employed this interval in meditating on the source of our ideas, on the nature of the soul, and on other mysteries of metaphysics. From 1752 till 1768, he was a member of the great council of his native city. He afterwards retired to his country-seat (Genthod), on the banks of the lake of Geneva, where he led a retired life, devoting his time to the investigation of nature, to the conversation of learned men, and to an extensive correspondence, till his death, in 1793. B. was a close and exact observer. He carried religious contemplations into the study of nature. In his views of the human soul, many traces of materialism are to be found; for instance, the derivation of all ideas from the movements of the nervous fibres. Of his works on natural history and metaphysics, there are two collections; one in 9 vols., 4to., the other in 18

vols., 8vo., Neufchatel, 1779. The most celebrated are, Traité d'Insectologie; Recherches sur l'Usage des Feuilles dans les Plantes; Considérations sur les Corps organisés; Contemplation de la Nature; Essai analytique sur les Facultés de l'Ame; Palingénésie Philosophique, and Essai de Psychologie.

BONNET; advocate, and bâtonnier (president) of the advocates in Paris. During the revolution, he was zealous in defending many unfortunate persons who were dragged before the revolutionary tribunal. He displayed his brilliant eloquence in the defence of general Moreau. In later times, he has been blamed for having yielded too much to the vindictive spirit of the French state attorneys: since 1815, particularly, he has been considered too compliant towards the procureur-général Bellart. We have reason to suppose that much of the reproach which has been cast upon him is unfounded, as he is known to have exposed his life and liberty, in former times, to save the accused. B. belongs to the extreme right side in the chamber of deputies, and has thus lost his popularity.

BONNEVAL, Claude Alexander, count of, or ACHMET PACHA, born 1672, at Coussac, in Limousin, of an illustrious French family, entered, in his 16th year, the body-guard of the king, but showed an extravagant propensity for pleasure. In war, he was an able and successful partisan, beloved by those under his command. He enjoyed the esteem of the marshal of Luxembourg. In the war of the Spanish succession, he obtained a regiment, with which he marched to Italy, and distinguished himself by his valor as well as by his excesses. On his return, he was obliged to fly, in consequence of some violent expressions against the minister and madame de Maintenon. He was, in 1706, appointed major-general by prince Eugene, and fought against his native country. At the peace of Rastadt, in 1714, by the interference of prince Eugene, the process against him for high treason was withdrawn, and he was allowed to return to his estates. In 1716, he was lieutenant field-marshal of the Austrian infantry, and distinguished himself by his valor against the Turks at Peterwardein (1716). In 1718, B. was nade a member of the imperial council of war, but his licentiousness and indiscretion induced prince Eugene to get rid of him, by appointing him, in 1723, master-general of the ordnance in the Netherlands. To revenge himself on Eugene,

he sent complaints to Vienna against the governor, the marquis of Prie; but the latter, who, on his side, had not been inactive, received an order to arrest B., and to imprison him in the citadel of Antwerp. B., being afterwards ordered to appear at Vienna, and give an explanation of his conduct, spent a month at the Hague before he chose to comply with the summons. He was therefore confined in the castle of Spielberg, near Brünn, and condemned to death by the imperial council of war; but the sentence was changed, by the emperor, into one year's imprisonment and exile. B. now went to Constantinople, where the fame of his deeds, and his humanity towards the Turkish prisoners of war, procured him a kind reception. He consented to change. his religion, received instruction in Mohammedanism from the mufti, submitted to circumcision, and received the name Achmet Pacha, with a large salary. He was made a pacha of three tails, commanded a large army, defeated the Austrians on the Danube, and quelled an insurrection in Arabia Petræa. His exertions, as commander of the bombardiers, to improve the Turkish artillery, were opposed by the jealousy of powerful pachas, the irresolution of Mohammed V, and the dislike of the Turkish troops to all European institutions. He enjoyed, however, the pleasures of his situation. He died in 1747. His Mémoires were published by Desherbiers (Paris, 1806, 2 vols.) In the second volume of the Memoirs of Casanova are to be found some notices of B.

BONNYCASTLE, John, professor of mathematics at the royal military academy at Woolwich, was born in Buckinghamshire. Though his education was not neglected, yet he was chiefly indebted to his own exertions for the various and extensive knowledge which he acquired. While young, he became private tutor to the two sons of the earl of Pomfret. After two years, he quitted that situation on being appointed one of the mathematical masters at Woolwich. Here, for more than 40 years, he devoted his time to the duties of his profession, and to the composition of elementary mathematical works. His first production was the Scholar's Guide to Arithmetic, which has passed through many editions. guides to algebra and mensuration are useful school-books. He likewise wrote a Treatise upon Astronomy, 8vo.; the Elements of Geometry, 8vo.; a Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometrv

His

8vo.; a Treatise on Algebra, 2 vols. 8vo.; and various articles in the early part of the last edition of doctor Rees's Cyclopædia. He died at Woolwich, May 15, 1821. BONPLAND, Aimé, educated at the medical school and the botanical garden in Paris, accompanied Alexander von Humboldt to America in 1799, and discovered above 6000 new species of plants. After his return, he was inade, in 1804, superintendent of the garden at Malmaison, which he has described (Paris, 1813— 1817, 11 numbers, folio, with copperplates). He was also co-editor of the Travels and Voyages in the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent, from 1799 to 1804, by Alex. Humboldt and A. Bonpland; published in French in Paris, and in German, by Cotta, in Tübingen (1818). In 1818, he went, as professor of natural history, to Buenos Ayres. There, Oct. 1, 1820, he undertook a journey along the Parana, to explore the interior of Paraguay. At Santa Ana, however, on the eastern bank of the Parana, where he had laid out plantations of tea, and had founded a colony of Indians, he was surprised, on the territory of Buenos Ayres, by 800 soldiers of doctor Francia, dictator of Paraguay, who destroyed his plantations, and carried him off prisoner, together with most of the Indians. Francia sent him, as physician, to the garrison of a fort, and employed him in laying out a commercial road. B. lived till within a few years in Santa Maria. There is no other reason for his captivity, than his success in planting the Paraguay tea. Alex. Humboldt wrote to doctor Francia to persuade him to liberate his friend, and he was supported in his request by the English minister Canning, and the British consul in Buenos Ayres, Mr. Parish, but without success. A late French mission to South America has in view his liberation. From the manuscripts of B., Kunth arranged the large work, Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, which B. and Alex. Humboldt had collected and described on their travels in the tropical countries of the new world. (Paris, 1815-1825, 7 vols., fol., with copperplates, in 35 numbers, 1240 francs.)

BONSTETTEN, Charles. von; born at Berne, 1745, of an ancient and noble family, in the canton of Zürich. His father, Charles Emanuel, was treasurer of Berne. He was educated, till his 19th yeur, at Yverdun, then in Geneva, where he improved himself in the society of Bonnet, Stanhope, Voltaire, Saussure and other learned men. He studied at Ley

den, afterwards with Gray at Cambridge, then at Paris, and travelled in Italy. In 1775, he became a member of the supreme council at Berne, and, in 1787, landvoigt in Nyon. Here Matthisson, Salis and Frederica Brun lived with him; here John Müller wrote on the history of his native country. By his endeavors to improve education, and other useful efforts, he promoted the welfare of his native country. During the revolutionary times, he lived with his friend Frederica Brun, in Copenhagen. On his return, in 1802, he chose Geneva for his residence. The results of a journey to Italy, in which he had made interesting investigations on the depopulation of the campagna at Rome by the mal' aria, appeared under the title Voyage sur la Scène du dernier Livre de l'Eneide, suivi de quelques Observations sur le Latium Moderne (Geneva, 1813). In 1807, appeared his Recherches sur la Nature et les Lois de l'Imagination, 2 vols. He afterwards published Pensées Diverses sur divers Objets du Bien Public (Geneva, 1815); Etudes ou Recherches sur les Facultés de Sentir et de Penser (1821, 2 vols.); and L'Homme du Midi et du Nord (Geneva, 1824). These works indicate a philosophical spirit of observation.

BONZANIGA, Giuseppe; royal sculptor at Turin. By a persevering application of 40 years, he raised the art of carving in wood and ivory to a high degree of perfection, and founded an establishment, from which numerous works of art have been produced, that are much sought for in all Italy, and valued by connoisseurs. He died Dec. 18, 1820.

BONZES; the name given by Europeans to the priests of the religion of Fo, in Eastern Asia, particularly in China, Birmah, Tonquin, Cochin-China and Japan. As these priests live together in monasteries, unmarried, they have much resemblance to the monks of the Christian church: the system of their hierarchy and of their worship also agrees, in many respects, with that of the Catholics. They do penance, and pray for the sins of the laity, who secure them from want by endowments and alms. The female bonzes may be compared to the Christian nuns; as the religion of Fo suffers no priestesses, but admits the social union of pious virgins and widows, under monastic vows, for the performance of religious exercises. The bonzes are commonly acquainted only with the external forms of worship and the idols, without understanding the meaning of their religious symbols. They endeavor to keep up the