the government are guided, and the government of the opinions of the public." In the debates upon the censorship of the public journals, he observed: "A new government may more readily grant freedom of speech, as it is not called upon to defend former abuses. Restrictions on the liberty of the press prevent the ministers from acquiring a knowledge of their real situation, and discredit them with the nation. The restraint of the press can only be of importance to ministers, who throw themselves into the arms of a violent party, with the intention of allowing it an unlimited license." The duke is profoundly versed in the whole department of political economy.

BROKER; an agent who is employed to conclude bargains, or transact other business, for his employer, for a certain fee or premium. Brokers are of several kindsmerchandise, money, exchange, ship, insurance, real estate, pawn, stock brokers, c. Exchange brokers negotiate notes and bills of exchange; money brokers exchange different kinds of money; these two classes are not unfrequently united. Merchandise brokers make contracts for the sale of merchandise. Pawn brokers make it their business to lend money upon pawns. Insurance brokers are those whose business it is to procure insurance of vessels at sea or bound on a voyage. They are, at once, the agents of the underwriters (who expect from them a full disclosure of all circumstances affecting the risk, and the payment of their premiums), and of the party insured (who trusts to them for the regularity of the contract, and a proper selection of underwriters). An agent or broker should not, therefore, be an insurer; for he then becomes too much interested to settle with fairness the rate of premium, the amount of partial losses, &c. Stock brokers are those who are employed to buy and sell shares in the stocks, including the public funds of their own and other countries, bank stock, &c. In the U. States, brokers are not required to be licensed, nor to give bonds. In France, the brokers who deal in money, exchange, merchandise, insurance and stock, are called agents de change, and their number at Paris is fixed at 60. The company of agents de change is directed by a chamber of syndics (chambre syndicale), chosen annually by the company. They are obliged to give bonds to the amount of 125,000 francs, for the prevention of abuses. They are also obliged to keep books, and are restricted to from toper cent. for each

negotiation. They are allowed to deal in the públic funds, foreign and domestic, and the different kinds of merchandise, &c. In London, the brokers must be licensed by the lord mayor, who takes bonds for the faithful execution of their duties. In Egypt, the Arabs are the exchange brokers, and are called consuls. In the Levant and the Indies, the Jews, Armenians and Banians are the chief brokers.

BROME; a peculiar substance discovered in 1826, and named from the Greek Bowpos, in consequence of its disagreeable odor. It is obtained from the bittern of sea-water, or the washings of the ashes of sea-weed. It is a dark-red liquid, of a specific gravity of 2.965, highly volatile, and emits copious red fumes at the ordinary temperature of the air. It boils at 116°. The vapor does not sustain the combustion of a candle, though several of the metals burn in it. It possesses the bleaching powers of chlorine, and, like that substance, is eminently hostile to life; a single drop of it, placed upon the bill of a bird, being sufficient to kill it. With oxygen and hydrogen it forms acids. Its properties have led to the opinion, that it might be a compound of chlorine and iodine; but, as neither of these substances have been detected in it, we are, for the present at least, obliged to regard it as a simple element.

BROMELIA. (See Pine-Apple.) BROMIUS; a surname of Bacchus. BRONKHORST, Peter van; a Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1588, and died in 1661. He painted, with great success, perspective views of temples and churches, enlivened with small but well executed human figures. In the town-house of Delft is his representation of Solomon's judgment.-John van B., born at Leyden in 1648, learned the art of painting without any instruction, and attained to a high degree of perfection. He principally painted animals, and was particularly successful in his birds. The lightness and brilliancy of the feathers are represented with much truth. He was 0 pastry-cook, and painted merely for his amusement.-Another John van B., born at Utrecht in 1603, was a painter on glass His works in the new church at Amsterdam are much esteemed He has also engraved some works of Cornelius Poelenburg.

BRONNER, Francis Xaver, born in 1758. at Hochstadt, on the Danube, of the lowest extraction, while a boy, entered the Jesuit college at Dillingen, as a singer

He afterwards became a Benedictine monk, and devoted himself, with the greatest zeal, to the study of philosophy and mathematics, as well as to music and poetry. He fled twice from the monastery, and took shelter in Zürich. In 1810, he was made professor in Kazan, in Russia, whence he returned in 1817. His poems, in particular his piscatory idyls, are interesting for their truth and simplicity, and the refined feeling of moral and natural beauty which pervades them. He wrote his own life, in 3 vols. BRONZE. For the mode in which this metal is prepared, see Copper.

BRONZES, in archaeology; works of art cast in bronze. The ancients used bronze for a great variety of purposes: arms and other instruments, medals and statues, of this metal, are to be found in all cabinets of antiquities. Egyptian idols of bronze are contained in the British museum. The most celebrated antique bronze statues are, the sleeping satyr; the two youthful athletes; the colossal equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome; the Hercules of the capitol; the colossal head of Commodus; the statue of Septimius Severus in the Barberini palace. The horses of St. Mark, at Venice, are of pure copper. On tables of bronze were inscribed laws, edicts, and treaties. 3000 of these were destroyed by fire in the time of Vespasian. Bass-reliefs, vaults, and doors of public edifices, were ornamented with decorations of the same metal. Urban VIII took from the Pantheon alone 450,000 pounds of bronze, which he used for the ornaments of St. Peter's, and for the cannon of the castle of St. Angelo. One of these was composed wholly of bronze nails, taken from the portico, and bore the inscription, Ex clavis trabalibus porticus Agrippa. The ancients considered this metal as naturally pure; all their instruments of sacrifice, and sacred vessels, were therefore of bronze. They also believed it endowed with the power of driving away spectres and malignant spirits. (Ov. Met. vii. 226, and Fast. v. 441.) The words moneta sacra are found only on bronze medals. It was sacred to the gods; and the Roman emperors, who struck gold and silver coins, could not strike them of bronze without the permission of the senate; hence the inscription S. C. (Senatus consulto). (For the method of casting in bronze among the ancients, see Winckelmann's History of Art, book i The moderns have also made much use of bronze, particularly for statues exposed to accidents, or the

influence of the atmosphere, and for casts of celebrated antiques. The moulds are made on the pattern, of plaster and brick dust. The parts are then covered on the inside with a coating of clay as thick as the bronze is intended to be. The mould is now closed, and filled on its inside with a nucleus or core of plaster and brickdust, mixed with water. When this is done, the mould is opened, and the clay carefully removed. The mould, with its core, are then thoroughly dried, and the core secured in its position by bars of bronze, which pass into it through the external part of the mould. The whole is then bound with iron hoops, and the melted bronze is poured in through an aperture left for the purpose: of course, the bronze fills the same cavity which was previously occupied by the clay, and forms a metallic covering to the core. is afterwards made smooth by mechanical means.

It

BRONZING. Bronze of a good quality acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tint, called patina antiqua, or, by the Romans, arugo. Corinthian brass receives in this way a beautiful clear green color. This appearance is imitated by an artificial process, called bronzing. A solution of sal ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vinegar is used for bronzing metals. Any number of layers may be applied, and the shade becomes deeper in proportion to the number applied. For bronzing sculptures of wood, plaster, figures, &c. a composition of yellow ochre, Prussian blue, and lampblack, dissolved in gluewater, is employed.

BRONZINO, Angelo, a painter of the Florentine school, and imitator of Michael Angelo, flourished about 1550. He painted a great number of portraits; and his historical paintings are distinguished by the striking and pleasing features of the heads which they contain. One of his best paintings is a Christ, in the church Santa Croce, at Florence. It is remarkable for its grouping and coloring, as well as for the heads, many of which are the portraits of his friends and contemporaries; yet it is not altogether free from mannerism and affectation. Some persons have found fault with the nakedness of his figures. He died at Florence, 1570.

BROODING. (See Ornithology.)

BROOKLYN, a post-town of New York in King's county, on the west end of Long Island, separated from the city of New York by East river. Population in 1810, 4,402; in 1820, 7,175. The village of B., within the township, is incorporat

ed, and has a pleasant and somewhat elevated situation, opposite to the city of New York, from which it is three fourths of a mile distant. It is a flourishing village, compactly and handsomely built, having various manufactures, and an extensive trade; and contained, in 1825, 8,800 inhabitants, and 5 houses of public worship. To the east of the village is a tract of land called the Wallaboght, which is the site of a navy-yard, and public store-houses, belonging to the U. States. Between B. and Flatbush, on the south, a severe battle was fought during the revolutionary war, between the British and Americans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss.

BROOKS, John, was born in Medford, Mass. in the year 1752. His father was a respectable farmer. After receiving a common education at the town school, young B. was indented as an apprentice, according to the prevailing custom, to doctor Simon Tufts, for the space of seven years. He here contracted an intimacy with the celebrated count Rumford, which was continued by correspondence until the latter's death. After completing his studies, he commenced the practice of his profession in the neighboring town of Reading; but he had not been long so engaged, when the revolutionary war broke out, and he was appointed to command a company of minute men, whom he soon had an opportunity of exercising against the British, on their retreat from Lexington and Concord. He was soon after raised to the rank of major in the continental service, and was distinguished for his knowledge of tactics, being considered as second, in that respect, to baron Steuben alone, with whom he was associated in the duty of introducing a uniform system of exercise and manoeuvres. In 1777, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and had no small share in the capture of Burgoyne, on the 7th of October, at Saratoga. When the conspiracy of some of the officers against the commander-in-chief, in March, 1783, had well nigh ruined the country, Washington rode up to Brooks, and requested him to keep his officers within quarters, to prevent their attending the insurgent meeting. Brooks replied, "Sir, I have anticipated your wishes, and my orders are given." Washington took him by the hand, and said, "Colonel Brooks, this is just what I expected from you." He was one of the committee who brought in the resolutions of the officers, expressing their abhorrence of this plot, and also

one of that appointed by the officers to adjust their accounts with congress.After the army was disbanded, colonel Brooks resumed the practice of medicine in Medford and the neighboring towns. He was soon after elected a member of the Massachusetts medical society, and, on its extension, and new organization, in the year 1803, a counsellor. He was for many years major-general of the militia of his county, and his division, during the insurrection of 1786, was very efficient in the protection of the courts of justice, and the support of the government. General Brooks also represented his town in the general court, and was a delegate in the state convention, for the adoption of the federal constitution, of which he was one of the most zealous advocates. In the late war with England, he was the adjutant-general of governor Strong, and was chosen to succeed him on his retirement from office, almost without opposition. As governor, he discharged his duties with signal ability and excellent temper.-He was president of many literary, religious, patriotic, benevolent and professional societies.After discharging, for seven successive years, the duties of chief magistrate, be retired to private life, and spent his remaining years in the town of Medford, where he was much beloved. The inhabitants referred to him all their disputes, and his decisions generally satisfied both parties. The death of this excellent man took place in the 79d year of his age, March 1st, 1825.-As a phy sician, he was judicious and accurate in his investigations, and clear in his discernment; prudent rather than lold, and kind and attentive to his patients. His mind was active, ardent, and indefatigable. His whole conduct was regulated by the purest sentiments of morality und religion, imbibed at an early period.

BROOM; a genus of plants whic' includes numerous species. The crnon broom (spartium scoparium) is a shrub growing abundantly on sandy Jares and heaths in England. It is distinguished by having large, yellow, terflyshaped flowers, leaves in threes, and single, and the branches angular. This is a handsome shrub, and one of the mos useful of the common plants of Great Britain. Its twigs are tied in handles, and formed into brooms. Sone persons roast the seeds, and make them into a kind of coffee. The fibrous and elastic parts of the bark, separated by soaking in water, may be manufactured into cor

dage, matting, and even into a coarse kind of cloth. The twigs and young pranches have been successfully employed as a substitute for oak bark in tanning leather. They may also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses and cornricks; and some persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they are wholesome. The flower-buds, when pickled, have, occasionally, been used as a substitute for capers. The wood, when the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated, by doctor Mead, that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been found efficacious in the cure of dropsy.-Spanish broom, or spart (spartium junceum), is an ornamental flowering shrub, common in English gardens, which has opposite round branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves. In the province of Valencia, and other parts of Spain, great attention is paid to the manufacture of various articles from the twigs and bark of this shrub. They are plaited into mats, carpets, covering for plants, baskets, ropes, and even shoes. A great portion of these twigs was formerly exported to different French ports in the Mediterranean, particularly to Marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived the Spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the government.

BROSSES, Charles de, first president of the parliament of Burgundy, was born at Dijon in 1709. He applied himself to the study of law, and, at the same time, did not neglect the arts and sciences. His intimate acquaintance with Roman history produced in him a desire of visiting Italy, whither he went in 1739. On his return, he published his Letters on the present Condition of the subterraneous City Herculaneum (Dijon, 1750). Ten years afterwards appeared his treatise on the religious worship called Fetisch. At the request of Buffon, who had been his friend from youth, he wrote a History of the Voyages to Australia (1756). At that time, it was generally believed that there was a southern continent, to which De B. gave the name of Magellania. The erroneous nature of this supposition was first nade known by Cook. A work of a very different kind succeeded this, and displayed the extent and variety of the author's learning. This was a treatise on the mechanical formation of languages. I contained, together with many imper

fections, numerous curious and profound investigations, ingenious conjectures, and penetrating views. De B. employed himself, through his whole life, on a work which was held in no slight estimation by the learned. This was a translation of Sallust, in which he labored to supply the lost parts of this historian. For this purpose, he collected above 700 fragments of Sallust, by means of which, with some important additions, he composed a history of the 7th century of the Roman republic, displaying a great extent of erudition. The work would have been received with greater approbation, if the graces of style had been joined to the depth and sagacity of research which it manifests. Though these various labors claimed a large portion of his time, yet they did not hinder him from attending to the duties of his office. He died in 1777. The manuscripts which he left were lost during the revolution.

BROTHEL. (See Bawdy-House.) BROTHERHOOD, HOLY. (See Herman

dad.)

BROTHERHOODS. (See Fraternities.) BROTHERS; male children of the same father or mother, or both. Among the ancients, the term was employed to denote more remote relations. Thus, among the Jews, Abraham was oalled the brother of Lot, his nephew. By the civil law, brothers and sisters stand in the second degree of consanguinity: by the canon law, they are in the first degree. In the monastic and military orders, the members were called brothers, as being united in one family. In Europe, the kings address each other by the title of brother: the president of the U. States uses the same title in addressing the Indian chiefs who are sent to talk with him.

BROUGHAM, Henry, was born at London, in 1779. He attracted public notice, originally, as one of the principal contrib utors to the Edinburgh Review. Souna learning, a terse and expressive style, logical reasoning, vigor and independence of thought, were the distinguishing traits of his compositions. But his efforts as a parliamentary orator, as an advocate, and as a public benefactor, have given him the most extensive reputation, and raised him to an enviable height in public opinion. As an advocate, he stands in the front rank of the English bar; and the variety of his talents and acquisitions have served to reflect credit upon his character as a lawyer; while the solid foot ing of professional eminence has commu nicated authority and weight to his exer

tions in other walks of life. His professional course has been, to a considerable degree, associated with his political career, in consequence of the differences between George IV, when prince-regent, and the then princess of Wales. During the discussions relative to her conduct and affairs, he acted as her counsel; and afterwards, on the accession of George IV, when queen Caroline claimed the rights and privileges of queen-consort, B. was appointed her attorney-general, and acted in that capacity at her trial. Of course, he belonged to the opposition party; and he has consistently maintained the principles of the whigs down to the present moment. The responsible part he took in behalf of queen Caroline secured to him the regard of her friends and of the opposition. But he possesses more solid claims to the respect of the liberal party, from his labors as a member of the house of commons. Among these may be mentioned his efforts to procure a repeal of the orders in council; his opposition to the leather tax; his opinions on the liberty of the press; his efforts in behalf of popular education; and, recently, his attempts to procure a reform in the administration of the laws. On all occasions, he has acted with purity and independence, and has proved himself above mere personal considerations. Although he never took office, yet he is, unquestionably, the most prominent man in the house. The variety of his powers and attainments is not the least of his claims to attention. Preeminent as a man of science, a literary man, a statesman, lawyer and orator, and throwing himself, with energy and success, into all these different departments of intellectual pursuit, he necessarily occupies a large space in the public eye. As an orator, he is neither finished nor accurate in style, but his characteristics are ingenuity and force of argument, quickness and strength of sarcasm, and a prompt, vigorous, impassioned style of reasoning, which render him, as an antagonist in debate, always redoubtable, and often irresistible. In addition to his contributions to the Edinburgh Review, and to various scientific journals, we may mention, among his publications, the following:-1. An Inquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers; 2 vols., 8vo., 1803. 2. On the State of the Nation. 3. Speech on the State of Commerce and Manufactures; 1812. 4. Speech at Liverpool; 1812. 5. Practical Observations on the Education of the People; 1825. 6.

Speech on the State of the Law; 1828. The reputation which he has hitherto acquired by his occasional efforts, upon temporary and transient subjects, is splendid; but he is now laying the foundation of a deeper and more brilliant fame, by his unwearied industry in the cause of popular instruction and of legal reform. As to the first, it is sufficient to say, that his principles on the subject of extending the elements of knowledge among the middling or lower classes, have met with the most decided support, and are the basis of much that is now doing for their improvement. His propositions of legal reform having been brought forward but lately, the result remains to be seen; but the reception they have met with augurs auspiciously for the result. His life, we hope, will long be spared to his country.

BROUGHTON'S ARCHIPELAGO; an extensive range of islands, rocky islets and rocks, in an arm of the Pacific ocean, on the west coast of North America; so called from an Englishman, who discovered them in 1790. Lon. 232° 56′ to 233° 40 E.; lat 50° 33' to 51° N.

BROUSSONET, Pierre Marie Auguste, physician and naturalist, born at Montpellier in 1761, first introduced the Linnæan system into France. Daubenton, though an opponent of Linnæus, made him his substitute in the college de France, and, in 1784, his assistant in the veterinary school.

B. read several valuable papers before the academy, and was chosen a member. As secretary of the agricul tural society at Paris, he published the useful L'Année rurale ou Calendrier à l'Usage des Cultivateurs, and caused the first flock of Merino sheep to be introduced from Spain, and Angora goats from the Levant. In 1789, he became a member of the national assembly, and, although he did not distinguish himself in political disputes, he was imprisoned by the convention as a Girondist. He escap ed to Madrid, but was obliged, by the royalist émigrés, to fly from that place By the assistance of his friend sir Joseph Banks, he embarked in an English ves sel for India. A storm forced the vessei into the harbor of Lisbon, where he soon met with new persecutions. Under the title of physician to the American consui at Morocco, he went to Africa, and reassumed his botanical studies. His name was finally struck from the list of emigrants. He was made consul at Mogadore, and at the Canaries, and, in 1805. member of the corps legislatif. He died, in 1807, from the consequences of a fall