to use them, to obtain relief for a disorder of his foot. The application proved most effectual; and, in consequence of this, the emperor is related to have built a castle here; and houses gradually accumulated round it. Carlsbad signifies, in German, Charles' bath. The town has 450 houses, with 2510 inhabitants. Ample provision has been made for the amusement of the visitors of this place. Fine buildings have been erected, and beautiful promenades laid out. A great number of strangers are attracted here every year. (See Mineral Waters.) Carlsbad is also known on account of the

Congress of Carlsbad. This congress was only for Germany, and is to be considered as one of the many consequences of the increase of a liberal spirit in the German nation, and the unwillingness of the monarchs to keep their promises respecting liberal institutions. The final act of this congress was closed May 15, 1820, and made a law of the German confederation on July 2. The object of the congress, according to its own resolves, was, to decide upon measures for the safety and internal order of Germany. Laws were passed for the establishment of a stricter police in the universities, which, since that time, have been brought into closer contact with the governments, and officers have been appointed to watch over the conduct of the students. Periodical works, and such as contain less than 20 sheets, were put, for five years, under a severe censorship; and the diet was to have the right to suppress any books which disturbed the peace or attacked the dignity of any meinber of the confederation, or tended so to do. For the detection and prosecution of secret political societies throughout Germany, and the checking of " demagogic tendencies," a central police-commission was organized. The congress, moreover, complained of dangerous theories every day becoming more and more widely spread, &c.

CARLSCRONA, or CARLSCROON; a seaport of Sweden, capital of the province of Blekingen, or Carlscrona; lon. 15° 33′ E.; lat. 56° 17' N.: population in 1810, 10,639; in 1815, 11,860. The greatest part stands upon a small, rocky island, which rises gently in a bay of the Baltic. The suburbs extend over another small rock, and along the mole close to the basin, where the fleet is moored. It is adorned with one or two handsome churches, and a few tolerable houses of prick; but the buildings in general are of wood. The suburbs are fortified, to

wards the land, by a stone wall. The entrance into the harbor, which, by nature, is extremely difficult, from a number of shoals and rocky islands, is still further secured from the attack of an enemy's fleet by two strong forts, built on two islands, under the batteries of which all vessels must pass. The harbor is large and commodious, with depth of water sufficient for ships of the first rate. The exports are timber, tar, potash, tallow and marble. Carlscrona is the principal depôt of the Swedish navy.

CARLSRUHE (German, which means the rest of Charles), the capital of the grand-duchy of Baden, was laid out in 1715, and is one of the most regularlybuilt towns in Europe. The castle of the grand-duke stands in the centre of the city, from which nine streets run at regular distances from each other, to the circumference of a circle enclosing the area of the city, and thus forming a star Other streets intersect these in parallel circles. The roads leading to the city correspond to this regular disposition, which, as is often the case in strictly regular cities, often leaves upon the traveller the impression of monotony, rather than that of agreeable order. The city contains 17,232 inhabitants and 1170 houses. It is ornamented with several beautiful public buildings. The court library contains 70,000 volumes; the botanical garden, 6000 species of plants. There are also here several valuable museums and cabinets, several institutions for the promotion of literature and the fine arts, one for the deaf and dumb, and some manufactories. Lon. 20° 45′ E.; lat. 49° N.

CARLSTADT (SO called from his native town, Carlstadt, in Franconia; his proper name was Andrew Bodenstein) is celebrated, in the history of the reformation, for his fanaticism as well as his misfortunes. He was professor of theology at Wittenberg. His learning_enabled him to render great support to Luther in his first steps for the introduction of a reformation. In 1520, he was included in the bull which condemned Luther; and his spirited appeal from the pope to a general council, of which he gave the first example, as well as his opinion, openly expressed, in favor of the marriage of the priesthood, which soon gained ground, was among the many proofs which he gave of his zeal for the reformation. Whilst Luther was at Wartburg, Carlstadt's zeal urged him to acts of violence. He even instigated the people and students to the destruction of the altars and

the images of the saints, greatly to the displeasure of Luther, who lost the friendship of Carlstadt by his opposition to his outrages. In 1524, he declared himself publicly the opponent of Luther, who had preached at Jena against the disturbances which he had excited, so that the elector Frederic banished him from the country, in September, 1524. Carlstadt, upon this, commenced the controversy respecting the sacrament, denying, in opposition to Luther, the bodily presence of Christ in the sacrament. This controversy was carried on with the bitterest animosity; and, Zwinglius having declared himself in favor of Carlstadt's doctrine, a dispute commenced between the Swiss and Wittenberg theologians, which ended in the separation of the Calvinists and Lutherans. Carlstadt, in the mean time, being suspected, not without reason, of having taken part in the revolt of the peasants in Franconia, was obliged to wander through Germany, and, being ultimately reduced to extreme distress, sought relief of Luther, who procured him an asylum at Kemberg, on condition that he should refrain from the expression of his opinions. Here he lived nearly three years. His restless mind, however, soon led him to break his promise, by the publication of some writings, in 1528; and he even went so far as to plot against Luther's person. To escape from the consequences of his conduct, he repaired to Świtzerland, at the end of the same year, where he was appointed vicar of Altstadt, in the valley of the Rhine; in 1530, deacon at Zürich, and, in 1531, vicar and professor of theology at Basle, where he died in 1541 or 1543.

CARMAGNOLE; a name applied, in the early times of the French republic, to a dance, and a song connected with it. The appellation originated, probably, from the city of Carmagnola, in Piedmont. The dance was first used at the time of the indignation of the people on account of the veto allowed to the king on the resolves of the national assembly. The carmagnole was commonly sung and danced at popular festivals, executions, and eruptions of popular discontent. Afterwards the name was also applied to the national guards, who wore a dress of a peculiar cut, and to the enthusiastic supporters of the revolution. Several members of the national convention,-Barrère, for instance, by way of jest, gave this name to their communications to the assembly.Petits carmagnoles is a name given, by the people in Paris, to boys who sweep chim

neys and black boots, chiefly Savoyards; probably taken from the name of the city before mentioned.

CARMEL; a mountain in Palestine, constituting part of Lebanon, the southern frontier of Galilee, in the pachalic of Acca. It consists of several rich, woody heights, separated by fertile and habitable valleys, within a circuit of about 28 miles, and terminates, at the mouth of the Kischen, in a lovely plain, which forms the southern coast of the gulf of Ptolemais or Acca, on the Mediterranean. Upon different parts of this mountain there are ruins of churches and monasteries from the time of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, and the cave which, according to tradition, was inhabited by the prophet Elias. From the 4th century, Christian hermits have chosen mount Carmel for their abode. It was not, however, till about the middle of the 12th century, that pilgrims, under the direction of Berthold of Calabria, established an association for the purpose of leading a secluded life upon this mountain, which received its rules from Albert, the patriarch of Jerusalem, in 1209, and the papal confirination from Honorius III, in 1224. Their rules coincide nearly with those of the ancient Basilians. This is the origin of the order of Our Lady of mount Carmel The Carmelites enumerate among their members all the prophets and holy men mentioned in the Scriptures, from Elias to Jesus; also Pythagoras, the Gallic Druids, the holy women of the New Testament, and the hermits of Christian antiquity. Christ they consider as their particular protector, and his apostles as missionaries from mount Carmel. The Jesuit Papebroch has shown how utterly unfounded their pretensions are, and no well-informed man believes their account of their origin. Yet they were allowed, as late as in the 18th century, by Benedict III, to erect the statue of the prophet Elias, as the founder of their order, in St. Peter's church in Rome. Being driven by the Saracens to Europe, they adopted, in 1247, a milder rule, and the forms of monastic life. They also became divided into four independent bodies:-1. the observantes, who wore shoes; 2. the congregation of Mantua; 3. the bare-footed friars, and bare-footed or Theresian nuns. in Spain; 4. the bare-footed friars in Italy. The two latter classes observe the elder and stricter rule. The knightly order of Our Lady of mount Carmel, established by Henry IV in France, is cou nected with the Carmelites only by the

CARMER (John Henry Casimir) count of; high chancellor and minister of justice in Prussia. He rendered the greatest service to Prussian jurisprudence by the assistance which he afforded in the preparation of the Prussian code, and still more by the improvements which he introduced into the civil process of that country. (See Prussian Code.) He was born in 1721, entered the Prussian service early, and was soon noticed by Frederic the Great. After 50 years' service, he retired from official life, and died, in 1801, near Glogau, in Silesia.

CARMINE, the most splendid of all the red colors, is made from the cochineal insect, or coccus cacti. It is deposited from a decoction of powdered cochineal in water, to which alum, carbonate of soda, or oxyde of tin, is added. As the beauty of this valuable color is affected, not only by the mode of applying it, but also by the quantity of the ingredients mixed with it, we find various recipes for the preparation of it. The manufactories which prepare the best carmine carefully conceal the method. The best natural cochineal is found in Mexico.

Carmontelle, a French poet, known by his Proverbes dramatiques (10 vols.), born in 1717, at Paris, died there 1806. These little pieces are without much connexion in themselves, being, in fact, only a series of dramatic scenes, but are well adapted for private theatres. The fertility of Carmontelle was as extraordinary as his ease in writing. He is said to have left, besides his printed works and his pieces for the theatre, more than a hundred volumes of manuscripts.

CARNATIC; a country in Hindostan, lying along the coast of Coromandel, from cape Comorin, in lat. 8°, to 16° N.; 500 miles in length, and from 40 to 100 in breadth. The Carnatic or Carnada, anciently called Narasinha, in early periods, was subject to the king of Bisnagar. Since the year 1787, the whole country has been under the authority or absolute control of the English East India company. The soil is generally sandy, and the climate is one of the hottest in India. The country of Ongole, Mudura and Tinevelly is in

cluded in the Carnatic. The principal towns are Arcot, Madras, Ongole, Pondi cherry, Cuddalore, Tanjore, Tritchinopoly, Madura and Tinevelly. The principal rivers are the Pennar, the Paliar and the Cauvery.

CARNATION (from the Latin caro, carnis, flesh) signifies, in the fine arts, the coloring of the flesh of the human body The use of carnation requires very attentive study, and great skill in the artist. It varies with the sex of the individual, with the classes and countries to which the subjects belong, with the pas sions, the state of the health, &c. The cheeks are, in a healthy subject, of a lively red; the breast, neck, and upper part of the arms of a soft white; the belly yel. lowish. At the extremities, the color becomes colder, and, at the joints, assumes a violet tint, on account of the transparent appearance of the blood. All these shades require to be softly blended. Two faults in carnation are chiefly to be avoided-hardness, the fault of the masters of the 15th century, and too great weakness. Guido Reni not unfrequently painted his flesh so that it appeared almost bloodless. The French school has gone furthest in this respect. The flesh of the followers of this school often looks like porcelain or wax. Titian is still unrivalled in carnation.

CARNEADES, an eminent Greek philosopher, founder of the third or new academy, was a native of Cyrene, in Africa, and is supposed to have been born in the third year of the 141st Olympiad. He studied first under Diogenes the Stoic, but subsequently attended the lectures of Egesinus, who explained the doctrines of Arcesilaus; and, succeeding his master in the chair of the academy, he restored its reputation by softening the prevailing pyr rhonism, and admitting practical probabilities. The doctrine of Carneades specifically was, that, "as the senses, the understanding and the imagination frequently deceive us, they cannot be the infallible judges of truth, but that from the impression made by the senses we infer appearances of truth, which, with respect to the conduct of life, are a sufficient guide." He was a strenuous opposer of Chrysippus, and attacked, with great vigor, the system of theology of the Stoics. He was an advocate of free-will against the fate of the same sect, and urged just the same difficulties in reconciling divine prescience with the freedom of human actions, as have divided some contending sects of Christianity. One of

the most distinguished events of his life was his being joined in an embassy to Rome with Diogenes the Stoic and Critolaus the Peripatetic, in order to gain the mitigation of a fine levied by the Roman senate on the Athenians. This extraordinary embassy was successful, and Carneades so captivated the people by his eloquence, that Cato the censor, fearful of its effect on the Roman youth, persuaded the senate to send the philosophers back to their schools without delay. C. died in the ninetieth year of his age, continually complaining of the shortness of life, and lamenting that the same nature which composed the human frame could dissolve it.

CARNELIAN. (See Quartz.) CARNIOLA; a duchy in the Austrian dominions. (See Austria, vol. i., page 493.)

CARNIVAL. The same views which led men to propitiate the higher invisible powers by gifts, sacrifices and purifications, also introduced fasts, abstinence from pleasure, and penances. By fast is meant an abstinence from the usual means of nourishment, in order to mortify the appetites, and thereby to propitiate the Deity. In every nation of importance, customs of this kind are found. Their historical origin is in the religious customs of the East, where the priests were originally the physicians of the people, and prescribed these fasts as a part of the regimen necessary in this warm region, as well as from religious views. Fasts are observed to this day in the East. The religions of the Persians and the Hindoos, those of Mohammed and Moses, and of the worshippers of the Lama, insist much on fasts. Few traces of them are found in the religion of the ancient people of the North. The earliest Christians fasted on the vigils. (q. v.) The fasts on the jejunia quatuor tempestatum, which continued for three days every quarter of the year, were penances, as was that of the period of 40 days (before Easter, or rather before Good Friday, Quadrigesima), which was called, by way of excellence, the fast, and which commemorated the 40 days' fast of Jesus in the wilderness. With regard to the origin of fasts, opinions differ. The most common is, that Telesphorus, bishop of Rome, in the middle of the 2d century, first instituted the 40 days' fast as a rule of the church. By pope Gregory the Great, about 600, Ash-Wednesday was made the beginning of the fast, and the day before was called fast-eve, because in the night of this day, at

12 o'clock, the fast began. This fast was preceded by a feast of three days, very obnoxious to the strict zealots. "Christians," it is said, "on these days, deliver themselve up to voluntary madness, put on masks, exchange sexes, clothe themselves like spectres, give themselves up to Bacchus and Venus, and consider all pleasure allowable." This is the origin of the present carnival, or Faschings, as it is called in the south of Germany, and which continues, in that country, from Twelfth-day to Ash-Wednesday. The name carnival is derived from the Latin words carne and vale (according to Ducange, from the Latin denomination of the feast in the middle ages, carne levamen), because at that time people took leave of flesh. Previously to the commencement of their long abstinence, men devoted themselves to enjoyment, particularly during the three last days of the carnival. The carnival is nothing but the Saturnalia of the Christian Romans, who could not forget their pagan festivals. At least it greatly resembles the Saturnalia, which were celebrated, annually, in December, with all kinds of mirth, pleasure and freedom, in honor of Saturn, and the golden age when he governed the world, and to preserve the remembrance of the liberty and equality of man in the youth of the world. Io Rome, the carnival brought to view, in lively manner, the old Saturnalia in a new form. During the last days of the carnival, and particularly during the day which preceded the long fast, mummeries, plays, tricks, and freedom of every kind, abounded. From Italy, the mod ern Saturnalia passed to the other Chris tian countries of Europe. In the amusements of this period the dramatic poetry of Germany had its origin, after the cities had attained a flourishing condition. Its first traces appeared in the 13th century. The mummeries of the carnival produced the idea of adopting some character, and carrying it through. To please the mul titude, and make the laugh more certain, the manners of common life were caricatured. These exhibitions afterwards be came more cultivated and developed "On fast-eve," says Flögel, in his History of Comic Literature, vol. 4, p. 292, "persons in disguise sometimes went from one house to another, to make sport with their friends and acquaintances. A me ry society of this kind formed a plan to represent some scene in their disguises, and hold a regular conversation at one of these mummeries. The unknown play ers received praises, entertainments o;

presents. Encouraged by this success, the company grew stronger, their fables and speeches became longer by degrees, until they attained to regular representations of human life." It was in Nuremberg, renowned for its wares and its wit, that the first fast-eve's play was produced, coarse and frolicsome, to suit the taste of the citizens. These pieces have a near relationship to the masques of the English and the farces of the French, as have the spiritual fast-eve's plays, religious burlesques, to the Mysteries and Moralities. According to the ancient custom, these plays were opened and closed by a crier or herald. The carnival is celebrated, in modern times, with the greatest show and spirit at Venice and Rome. In the former place, it begins after Christmas. The diversions of it are shows, masquerades, the amusements of the place of St. Mark, and sometimes, in case of the visits of great princes, a regatta, or boat-race. After this, there was a second carnival in Venice, the Venetian mass, called also the festival of the Ascension, and the Bucentaur festival, because it commonly began on Ascension-day, and because the celebration of the marriage of the doge with the Adriatic sea was connected with it. It con

tinued 14 days. No character-masks were worn there, however, except Venetian dominos. The carnival at Rome (see Göthe's excellent description, Das Römische Carneval, and that of lady Morgan) continues but eight days, and is occupied mostly in masquerades and races. Since the return of peace, the carnival has been celebrated again in Cologne, on the Rhine, under the direction of the committee of fools, to the great satisfaction of all who were present. In Spain, the carnival is called carnestolendas.

CARNOT, Lazare Nicholas Marguerite; born at Nolay, in Burgundy, 1753; the son of an advocate. From his youth, he exhibited an uncommon talent for the mathematical and military sciences, entered the corps of engineers, and rose in office by the favor of the prince of Condé. He published, afterwards, Mathematical Essays, which caused him to be elected a member of several learned societies. His eulogy on Vauban received the prize of the academy at Dijon. At the beginning of the revolution, he was captain in the corps of engineers. In 1791, he was appointed deputy to the constituent assembly, but at first took part only in military affairs. At his proposal, the officers of the nobility were removed from the

army, and others substituted from the citizens. As a member of the convention, he voted for the death of Louis. In the following March, he was sent to the army of the north, where he deprived the cowardly general Gratien of his command on the field, put himself at the head of the army, and repulsed the enemy. On his return to the convention, he was made a member of the committee of public safety. (q. v.) The influence of Carnot in the military operations now began to be more deeply felt. In possession of all the plans deposited in the archives of Louis XIV, he organized and directed the French armies; and his direction undoubtedly contributed very much to their success. After the fall of Robespierre, he was often accused, but always acquitted, because his duty had been to take care of the defence of the country, and he could not be made answerable for the cruel decrees of Robespierre, in which Carnot's name, as he was a member of the committee, of course, was to be found. At the establishment of the directory, in 1795, Carnot was chosen a member, and for some time, maintained an importan influence. Barras at length succeeded him in the department of war, and was ever after, his enemy. His plan for the overthrow of Barras was unsuccessful, and, with some others, he was sentenced to transportation on the 18th Fructidor (Sept. 4), 1797. He fled to Germany, and published a defence, which was eagerly read in Paris, and, by the exposure of the conduct of his former colleagues, hastened their overthrow on the 30th Prairial (June 18), 1799. After the 18th Brumaire, Carnot was recalled and appointed in specteur aux revues, and, two months later, in April, 1800, minister of war. He soon after retired into the bosom of his family, but was called to the tribune, March 9, 1802. The same inflexible tegrity and republican principle, which had hitherto distinguished him, did not now desert him. He often opposed the views of the government, voted alone against the consulship for life, and resisted strenuously the proposal for the imperial dignity. He remained, however, a member of the tribunate till it was abolished, passed the next seven years of his life in retirement, and published several valuable military works. In 1814, Napoleon gave him the chief command at Antwerp. He connected a vigorous defence with a careful regard for the interest of the city, which, by the command of Louis XVIII, he afterwards surrendered to the English gen