sufficiently specified by the pronoun she. So, "She is my accuser," is a proper expression; for the word accuseress is uncommon, and is not needed to show the sex.

Our language is defective in not having, in the third person, a singular pronoun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of they, their, etc. In such cases the masculine pronoun is preferred when the antecedent is a noun of the common gender, and denotes a person; and both the masculine and the feminine pronoun are used when the antecedent comprises both a masculine and a feminine noun. To small children and to inferior animals the pronoun it is sometimes applied.

Person and Number.-In regard to number, writers occasionally allow themselves to be governed by the logical sense, or by euphony or

attraction.

"In Hawick twinkled many a light,

Behind him soon they set in night."

Scott.

They, in this sentence, is allowable; because the clauses are not so closely connected that the pronoun it would preserve the full sense.

'Neither history nor tradition furnish such information.”

Robertson.

A silk dress or a flowered bonnet were then great rarities."— Flint. "Where Leonidas, with his chosen band, were cut off."- Kames. These plurals, though in accordance with the syntax of the Classic languages, are not allowable in modern English.

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"A coach and six is in our time never seen except as a part of some pageant." Macaulay. "Two thousand a year was a large revenue for a barrister." Id.

"Early to bed, and early to rise,

Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." - Franklin.

These singular verbs are probably allowable, because all that the subject denotes is taken as but one thing. See p. 144.

Milton, in imitation of Greek and Latin syntax, frequently uses a singular verb after two nominatives joined by and, where, in modern English, a plural verb is required.

An abstract number may have a singular verb, where a concrete number would require a plural verb; as, "Five from seven | leaves two"; "Five apples [taken] from seven apples | leave two apples."

Most nominatives that consist of numbers may be classed with collective nouns; and they are about as indefinite in syntax. In addition, the verb must of course be plural; in subtraction, division, or proportion, it may be singular or plural, according as the number is abstract or concrete. In fractions and compound numbers that must be read plurally, the verb should, we think, be generally plural; though the principle that a plural term sometimes denotes a single object, or that two or more singular nominatives connected by and denote but one person or thing, may occasionally justify the use of the singular verb. In multiplication, the prevailing custom is, to make the verb plural when the word times is used. See p. 224.

When a plural substantive precedes, some writers use as follow; but most writers prefer as follows, whether the preceding substantive is singular or plural.

"What's justice to a man, or laws,

That never comes within their claws."- Hudibras.

Justice is nearer to is, and laws to their; hence the difference, and both are proper by attraction. Such expressions as one or more persons are also now considered allowable on the same principle.

We say, "The Old and New Testaments," in stead of "The Old Testament and the New Testament"; and on the same principle, "Bancroft's and Palfrey's Histories" (Atlantic Monthly), "Glover's, Mason's, and Patterson's regiments" (Irving), seem to have been used. But English grammars teach that we should say, "Bancroft's and Palfrey's History.” Such expressions as "A ten-foot pole," "A twenty-cent piece,” “ A fivedollar note," etc., are proper; but a hyphen should always be used to connect the parts. The noun, in such expressions, being used as an adjective, loses the properties of a noun. If these singulars should be plural, then it would not seem unreasonable to require he to be him or them in the following example: "They brought he-goats."

Case. — In regard to the possessive case and kindred forms, there are some ambiguities, or shades of meaning, that are worthy of notice. The phrase "God's love," for instance, can be so used as to signify either his love toward us or our love to him; and "The doctor's treatment " is rather active, while "The treatment of the doctor" is rather passive.

It is remarkable that a possessive appositive noun does not always require the possessive form, while such a pronoun must always have it. "Thy Maker's will has placed thee here,

A Maker wise and good.". Brown's Grammar.

The foregoing sentence is correct; but, misled by this grammar or principle, Mrs. Sigourney wrote improperly,

"His curse be on him. He, who knoweth [,- his]

Where the lightnings hide." Mrs. Sigourney.

By the figure enallage, the objective case is allowed in a few poetic or idiomatic expressions; as,

"Fare thee well, thou first and fairest !

Fare thee well, thou best and dearest!

Burns.

"Fare thou well" would be so grammatical as to spoil the poetry. Voice. The scarcity of verbal forms in our language has always caused some perplexity in regard to the mode of expressing verbs in the progressive passive sense. There was at one time a strong tendency to adopt the preposition a and the present participle; as, "Jack always liked to be present when money was a paying or receiving.”. Swift. In the writings of Swift are many specimens of this construction; but the present and established practice seems to be what we have taught on pp. 141 and 307.

tense.

Mood. Formerly, the subjunctive mood was extended over all the tenses of the indicative mood and the potential; or it was used when simply doubt was implied, as well as when both doubt and futurity affected the The blundering and contradictory teachings of grammarians in regard to this mood have caused the public to discard it almost altogether. But there is for this mood a proper and well-established province, which we have endeavored to show on pp. 132, 133, 304; and if the mood should ever be expelled from this field of expression, our language will be the poorer for the change.

Tense.

See pp. from 136 to 160; also pp. 306 and 307.

We sometimes find an obsolescent subjunctive form in good modern writers; as, "If he have given," etc. Wayland. Such forms are justifi

able simply as being remnants or imitations of old style. We sometimes meet with a person who prefers some old-fashioned article of dress. Comparison. - A word that is not a pure superlative, can sometimes be used in speaking of two objects only; as, “A trochee has the first syllable accented." And perhaps the superlative degree can be occasionally applied to one of two when we do not refer to inferior objects, but chiefly aim to impress the idea that the object is not exceeded. Since there are adjectives that have a fixed or absolute meaning, we are sometimes at a loss for words that express approximations to this fixed or high state of quality. In such cases it seems best to apply the words to the partial meaning, and then compare them. "Aristides was the most just of the Athenians," is better than "Aristides was the least unjust of the Athenians"; for the latter implies that the Athenians were all knaves, and he was simply not the worst one. Such expressions as "the most nearly just” have sometimes a stiff and pedantic air.

Position of Words.

A modifier naturally refers its meaning to the nearest word that is suitable to receive it; and since modifiers are numerous and various, and can refer to many different words, to give the best position to the words, phrases, and clauses, which are modifiers, becomes one of the chief concerns of every writer. Ambiguity, obscurity, and sometimes absurdity, harshness, or feebleness, are the chief faults of bad arrangement of words.

When a numeral and a cardinal adjective precede a noun, the numeral adjective is generally placed before the other, as, "The first two men," not "The two first men", for there can not be two firsts. When adjectives or other modifiers precede their noun, the more accidental or comprehensive must generally be placed before those which are less so; as, "Mechanics' Bank," "National Mechanics' Bank," or "Mechanics' National Bank." The adjectives all, such, many, what, both, and adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how, usually precede the article when used with it.

667. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, construction, or application of words, for the sake of brevity, force, or beauty.*

668. Figures may be divided into three classes:

1. Figures of Orthography, which are deviations from the ordinary spelling or pronunciation of words.

2. Figures of Syntax, which are deviations from the ordinary construction of words.

3. Figures of Rhetoric, which are deviations from the ordinary meaning or application of words.

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

1. Aphoresis, the shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable from the beginning; as, 'gainst for against.

Ex. There's a bliss beyond all that the minstrel hath told.

A shortened word is tnus sometimes made a part of an adjoining word.

2. Syn'cope, the shortening of a word by taking a

*The end to be reached is frequently gained indirectly rather than directly. Thus, in verse an inferior expression is sometimes allowed for the purpose of gaining the greater beauty of rhythm or rhyme.

letter or syllable from the middle; as, red'ning for reddening.

Ex,

O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

3. Apoc'ope, the shortening of a word by taking a letter or syllable from the end; as, th' for the; Ben for Benjamin.

Ex. The morn is up again, the dewy morn.

4. Pros'thesis, the lengthening of a word by prefixing a syllable.

Ex.

- Far adown the long aisle sacred music is streaming.

5. Parago'ge, the lengthening of a word by annexing a syllable; as, Johnny for John.

Ex.

Oft, in the stilly night, ere slumber's chain has bound me. Elision is the omission of letters; ellipsis, the omission of words.

When a word is lengthened by pronouncing suppressed final ed, the figure may be called Diar'esis; and when a syllable is blended with another in pronunciation, the figure may be called Synær'esis.

6. Tme'sis, the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound; as, "on which side soever" for "on whichsoever side."

Ex. The century-living crow that caws the live day long.

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

670. The principal figures of syntax are,

1. Ellipsis, the omission of words; usually, the omission of such words as must be supplied in parsing.

In analyzing and parsing, only such words should be supplied as are necessary to complete the construction. See page 214.

Under the head of ellipsis can probably be included the following figures; though in parsing examples under them, it will generally be sufficient simply to mention the figure, without supplying words.

Aposiope'sis, the leaving of something unsaid.

Ex.

Whom I-but first 't is best the billows to restrain.

Say, in parsing, that whom is in the objective case; but, by the figure aposiopèsis, it has no governing word expressed.