ern church had new reasons for enjoining celibacy, when the system of benefices began to be organized. At first, the officers of the church lived on the voluntary gifts of the faithful. When the church acquired wealth, lands and tithes, the revenue and estates of all the churches belonging to the diocese of a bishop were considered as one whole, the administration and distribution of which depended on the bishop. But, in the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries, a particular sum was taken from the common stock for each officer, the bishop not excepted. This constitution of the church was similar to that of the state, in which feudatories performed military and other services, in consideration of the usufruct of certain lands. Even the name was the same. The possessions of the feudatories were called benefices, as well as those of the clergy. If the clerical benefices and employments had become hereditary, as was the case with the lay benefices, we should have seen a hereditary ecclesiastical caste, similar to that of the nobility, which has been transmitted to us from the middle ages, as a caste of warriors and civil officers. We should have seen hereditary priests, hereditary bishops, and a nereditary pope. The ruinous consequences, moral and political, which would nave resulted from such a state of things, are easily conceived. All the feelings and principles of a pure and divine religion would have disappeared in such an empire of priests. The most absolute despotism would have been established over the nations, and every attempt of the commons to attain a higher stand in political society would have been frustrated. When the canons in Wales afterwards abandoned celibacy, it was soon observed, that they had succeeded in making their benefices hereditary, by intermarriages between their sons and daughters. The fate of Wales would have been that of all the Christian nations of the West, if the marriage of priests had been allowed. Whilst, however, the church persevered in commanding celibacy, she had to struggle with the opposition of a corrupt clergy. The council of Narbonne, in 791, forbade the clergy to have any females living with them, even such as former rules had permitted. The same was ordered by the council of Mentz, 888. By the council of Augsburg, every clergyman was forbidden, under penalty of dismission, either to marry, or to cohabit with his wife, if already married, or to retain female companions who had been introduced under the name of sisters (subintroductas); and the bishop

was authorized, when suspicious women were found in the houses of clergymen, to drive them out with whips, and cut off their hair. In the council of Canterbury, king Edgar himself delivered a speech on the scandalous life of the clergy, whose houses, as he said, might well be considered as brothels. Soon afterwards, a great number of canons and priests were dismissed, whose places were given to monks. In the council at Erham, in 1009, the clergy were directed anew to dismiss their wives. To those who abstained, it was even promised, that they should be treated like nobles by birth. Leo IX ordered that women at Rome, transgressing with priests, should be slaves in the Lateran for life. Adalbert, archbishop of Hamburg, excommunicated the concubines of priests, and had them ignominiously turned out of the city. Pope Victor II dismissed several bishops on account of their irregularities. Notwithstanding all such prohibitions, it appeared impossible to maintain the law of celibacy in force. In 1061, the Lombard bishops, most of whom had concubines, themselves elected Nodolaus, bishop of Parma, afterwards Honorius II, antipope, merely because he did not live in celibacy; and it was, therefore, hoped that he would not insist on the observance of the prohibitory law. Add to this, that most of these clergymen, living with concubines, in violation of canonical laws, obtained their places by simony, and you have a true picture of the church in those days. The necessity was urgent that a reformer of the church should arise. He appeared in Gregory VII, who, like all men of great genius, has a right to be judged in reference to the spirit of his In order to reform the corrupted discipline of the church, he was obliged to encounter the simony and licentiousness of the clergy. The former he checked by opposing the emperor's right of investiture, and enforced the laws of celibacy by new regulations. In the council of 1074, at Rome, he ordered that all married clergymen, and all laymen who should confess to them, hear mass of them, or be present at any divine service performed by them, should be excommunicated. When the bishop of Coire began to read this decree to the synod in Mentz, the clergy assailed him with reproaches and blows, so that he narrowly escaped with his life. They declared that they did not pretend to be angels, and would rather give up their priesthood than their wives. Gregory, nevertheless, succeeded, as he was supported by the most ancient and most undoubted canons. After

age.

Gregory's decease, the church continued in the same course. The prohibitions were repeated, as well as the rules of caution concerning domestic life. Yet transgressions of this hard commandment were very frequent, particularly in the 15th and 16th centuries. In Petrarca's works are many complaints of the licentiousness of the clergy at the pope's court in Avignon, where Petrarca lived for some time. In the accounts of the council of Basle, it is stated that many cardinals present there lived openly with their concubines. In one of the chronicles of the mark of Brandenburg, we are informed that, at a feast, a question arose whether the bishop's concubine should precede the other ladies or not. The reformation followed. It recognised no sacrificing priests; virginity was esteemed no higher than conjugal fidelity; vows of chastity were considered no longer obligatory; and, as the Protestant clergy were subject either to the state or the religious communities, it was no longer to be feared that they would, by their own authority, make the benefices hereditary. Luther did not at first go the whole length of these changes. He thought the prohibition of matrimony unjust; yet he believed that the monks, who were bound to celibacy by their vows, ought to observe them. He wrote to Spalatin, Aug. 6, 1521, "Our Wittenbergians intend, too, to give wives to the monks; but I shall not suffer myself to) ave one forced upon me." Bartholomew Bernhardi, a monk, head of the religious establishment of Kemberg, was the first of the clergy who married (in 1521), and most of the Lutheran divines imitated him. When the papal legate, cardinal Campeggio, recommended the punishment of the married priests, this only widened the breach between the old and new church. Luther declared, in 1524, that he was not made of wood and stone, and, in 1525, married the nun, the consecrated virgin, Catharine von Bora. (q. v.) Celibacy was the weak side of the Catholic church, as many divines went over to the reformed church under pretence of a change in their religious sentiments, but, in reality, to be enabled to marry. The reformed princes offered their clergy the alternative, either to marry their concubines, or to put them away. The latter supposed a self-denial, which could not be

In Abbot's Letters from Cuba (Boston, 1829, p. 15), it is stated, that most of the priests on that island have families, and speak of their children without scruple, and will sometimes even reason on the subject, and defend the practice. The case is much the same in a great part of South

America.

VOL. III.

3

expected from one who had lived in concubinage, and a change of religion was the necessary consequence of marriage. Some Catholics wished this weak spot in their church to be removed. At the council of Salzburg, in 1562, the bishops deliberated what measures ought to be proposed at the council of Trent, and resolved to vote for the marriage of the clergy. The duke of Bavaria likewise insisted upon the marriage of the priests. The emperor, the electors, and many other princes, directed their envoys to demand it. The king of France also desired the marriage of the clergy, or, at least, a maturer age for con secration. But the majority at Trent (sess. 24, can. 9) decided for celibacy, observing that God would grant the prayers of those who prayed earnestly for chastity, and would not suffer them to be tempted beyond their strength. The provisions, in regard to celibacy, are as follows:-The clergy of the Greek church, who were married before their consecration, are allowed to continue in a state of matrimony. The priest, however, must abstain from his wife three days before every celebration of the mass. Of the Roman clergy absolute celibacy is required; yet the four lower orders are permitted, on giving up their benefices, to quit the clerical profession, and to marry. But, from the subdeacons upwards, celibacy is commanded absolutely; except that the pope may give permission to retire from the clerical office, and, in consequence, to marry. The penalties for transgressing the rules of celibacy are numerous. The wife must be dis

missed, and penance undergone for the offence. The offender is forbidden to perform the ecclesiastical functions belonging to his degree, and cannot receive the higher consecration, as he becomes what is called irregular. Yet, after penance, this irregularity may be removed by dispensation from the bishop. Finally, he becomes excommunicated by the very act of his marriage, and must, on this account, also, have recourse to the bishop, to be received again into the communion. In Germany, by the terms of the peace of Westphalia, a Catholic clergyman who marries loses his benefice and his rank in the church, without loss of reputation, however, if his marriage be only a previous step to his adoption of the Protestant faith. Persons already married can be consecrated as clergymen only on condition of their taking a vow of chastity, to which the wife has given her conseut. She must also enter some religious order. The rule of celibacy has been more strict

ly observed in the Catholic church since the reformation than it was before. One reason of this is, that many incontinent clergymen have left the Catholic church, and entered into one which allowed them to marry. Another reason is, that the Protestant reformation aroused the attenion of the Catholic church to the necessity of a reform in its own body, and the observance of a stricter discipline. Hence few such public scandals have occurred as in former times, and transgression has been followed by immediate punishinent. Yet it is not to be denied, that the rule of celibacy is often violated. Such transgressions are to be expected, particularly at a time when education and so many other circumstances tend to increase the influence of luxury; yet the far greater part of the Catholic clergy respect the rule of celibacy at the present day. Among the reasons against requiring celibacy in the clergy, is the increasing scarcity of men willing to devote themselves to a profession which requires such strict self-denial.

[The foregoing article, written by a Catholic, presents the views entertained on the subject of celibacy by the members of that communion. To those not educated in that church, it appears exceedingly difficult to comprehend why a rule of life not enjoined by any express command or divine law, and which contravenes the dictates of nature and the obligations of society, should be regarded as of such importance to the excellence of the priesthood. That it would attach them more devotedly to the secular interests of the church, there can be no doubt; but that they would be as capable of ministering to the spiritual necessities of the people as those who are experienced in the feelings of the people, through their social connexions, we should find it very difficult to believe.]

CELL; generally employed to designate an apartment used as a storehouse for wines, &c., and commonly under ground. The same term has various applications under different circumstances. Thus cella was used, by the Roman poets, to signify the lodge or habitation of common prostitutes, these being anciently under ground (see Juvenal, sat. vi, ver. 121), having the names of the inmates over the doors. The name of cell was also used for the lodgings of servants, among the Romans; for the apartments of the public baths; for the adyta or inmost and most retired parts of the temples, where the images of the gods were preserved. The term cell

was also applied to a lesser or subordinate minster, dependent upon a greater, by which it was erected and under whose government it remained. The great ancient English abbeys had generally such cells in distant places, which were accountable to, and received their superiors from them. The apartments or private dormitories of monks and nuns are also called cells.-In technology, the term cell is employed very frequently to signify any small compartment into which substances are divided; thus the hexagonal chambers of the honey-comb are called cells, as in botany the cavities, separated by partitions in the pods, husks or seed-vessels of plants, which are said to be unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, &c., according to the number of cells.-In anatomy, it is applied to various small cavities, such as the aircells, or pulmonary vesicles, the adipose cells, or spaces in the membrane which retains the fat, &c. The loose, inflatable texture, which unites and surrounds all the parts and organs of the body, has the name of cellular, from its being made up of a succession of these little membranous interstices.

CELLAMARE (Antonio Giudice, duke of Giovenazzo), prince of, born at Naples, 1657, and educated at the court of Charles II of Spain, made several campaigns, and was in the Spanish service during the greater part of the war of the Spanish succession, till he fell into the hands of the imperialists, in 1707, who kept him prisoner in Milan till 1712, when he was exchanged. On his return to Spain, he was made a cabinet minister, and, in 1715, ambassador extraordinary to the French court. Here he became the chief instrument of the designs of Alberoni, and the soul of a conspiracy against the regent, Philip of Orleans. A plot was formed for arresting the regent at a festival, calling together the states-general of the kingdom, and declaring Philip V regent, who, having thus become master of Spain and France, would have made the rest of Europe tremble. Cellamare was only waiting for further orders from his court, when the plan was discovered, and his letters, having been intercepted, revealed the parties engaged in the conspiracy. He was arrested, and conducted, under an escort, to the Spanish frontiers. The court of Madrid made him captain-general of Old Castile. He died at Seville, in 1733.

CELLARIUS, Christopher, one of the most learned philologists of the 17th century, was born in 1638. After he had

studied at several German universities, he taught moral philosophy and the Oriental languages at Weissenfels. In 1673, he was made rector of the school at Weimar, and afterwards of the seminaries at Zeitz and Merseburg, and, finally, professor of eloquence and history at Halle, where he died in 1707. He published a great number of ancient authors, with learned annotations and very accurate indexes, as, for instance, the letters of Cicero and of Pliny, Cornelius Nepos, Curtius, Eutropius, Sextus Rufus, Velleius Paterculus, the 12 ancient panegyrists, Minucius Felix, Silius Italicus, &c. His own compositions relate to ancient history and geography, Roman antiquities, and the Latin language.

CELLINI, Benvenuto; a sculptor, engraver and goldsmith; born at Florence, in 1500, where he died in 1570; distinguished particularly by his works in gold and silver, which have become very rare, and are sold at present at immense prices. Of a bold, honest and open character, but vain and quarrelsome, and impatient of encroachment and dependence, he was often entangled in quarrels, which frequently cost his antagonists their lives. He himself incurred great dangers, was put into prison, and was saved only by his boldness and the powerful protectors whom his talents as an artist procured him. At the siege of Rome (if we believe his own account, given in his autobiography), he killed, with one cannon shot, the constable of Bourbon, and, with another, the prince of Orange. He was afterwards imprisoned on the charge of having stolen the jewels of the papal crown, which were intrusted to him during the siege, and was released only by the interference of Francis I, whose court he visited, and executed there several works. He afterwards returned to Florence, and, under the patonage of Cosmo, made a Perseus with the head of Medusa, in bronze, which is still an ornament of the market-place; also a statue of Christ, in the chapel of the Pitti palace, besides many excellent dies for coins and medals. In his 58th year, he wrote his own life in Latin, with equal candor and vanity. It has been translated, in a masterly manner, by Göthe, into German. There is also an English translation by doctor Nugent, 1771; new edition by Thomas Roscoe, 1822. It contains striking descriptions of Cellini's own adventures, and of the characters of the persons with whom he came in contact. Among his other writings, the most important are Due Trattati, uno intorno

alle otto principali Arti dell' Oreficeria. l'altro in Materia dell' Arte della Scoltura (best edition, 1731). His style is free, strong and original, and the academy della Crusca often quotes him as a classic.

CELLULAR SUBSTANCE, or CELLULAR MEMBRANE (tela cellulosa or mucosa of Latin writers), is the medium which connects and supports all the various parts and structures of the body. Any person may gain a general notion of this substance by observing it in joints of veal, when it is inflated by the butchers. It consists of an assemblage of fibres and lamina of animal matter, connected with each other so as to form innumerable cells or small cavities, from which its name of cellular is derived. It pervades every part of the animal structure. By joining together the minute fibrils of muscle, tendon or nerve, it forms obvious and visible fibres. It collects these fibres into large fasciculi, and, by joining such fasciculi, or bundles, to each other, constitutes an entire muscle, tendon or nerve. It joins together the individual muscles, and is collected in their intervals. It surrounds each vessel and nerve in the body, often connecting these parts together by a firm kind of capsule, and, in a looser form, joining them to the neighboring muscles, &c. When condensed into a firm and compact structure, it constitutes the various membranes of the body, which, by long maceration in water, may be resolved into a loose, cellular texture. In the bones, it forms the basis or ground-work of their fabric, a receptacle, in the interstices of which the earth of bone is deposited. As cellular substance is entirely soluble in boiling water, it is considered, by chemists, as that peculiar modification of animal matter termed gelatine. In consequence of its solution by the united agencies of heat and moisture, the muscular fibres separate from each other, and form the other structures of the body. This effect is seen in neat which is subjected to long boiling or stewing for the table, or, indeed, in a joint which is merely over-boiled. It forms a connexion and passage between all parts of the body, however remote in situation or dissimilar in structure; for the cells of this substance every where communicate, as we may collect from facts of the most common and familiar occurrence. In emphysema, where air escapes from the lungs wounded by a broken rib into the cellular substance, it spreads rapidly from the chest into the most remote parts of the body, and has even been known to gain admission into the eye-ball. A simi

lar diffusion of this fluid may be effected by artificial inflation.

CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, lived, probably, under the reign of Augustus. He has been called the Roman Hippocrates, because he imitated the Greek physician, and introduced the Hippocratic system into Rome. He also wrote on rhetoric, the art of war and agriculture. He is, however, best known as a medical writer. His style is elegant, concise, and, nevertheless, very clear. His work on medicine is an inexhaustible source, from which other good authors have drawn materials for writings, both medical and surgical. He has furnished subsequent writers with a multitude of authorities for the support of their different theories, but has suffered much arbitrary interpretation. Hippocrates and Asclepiades are the two authors whom he has followed most. More than 59 editions of his 8 books De Medicina had appeared in 1785; the first at Florence, 1478, fol.: the best is by Krause, Leipsic, 1766: that of Targa was printed at Padua, 1769, 4to., and one at Verona, 1810, 4to.

CELTE (they called themselves, also, Gael, or Gales; see Gael); one of the four chief nations which inhabited Gallia. Their territory extended from the extreme point of Brittany to the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans, therefore, called the whole country Celtica, or Galatia. They left Asia at some distant period, and, at the time of Tarquinius Priscus, came, under Bellovesus, to Upper Italy, and large numbers of them spread over several countries of Europe. In Spain, they became mingled with the Iberians, whom they conquered. Internal wars weakened them; and commerce with the Romans, and with the people of Marseilles, made them more civilized. The Italian Celta were subjected, 220 B. C., by the Romans. The Boii united themselves with the Helvetii; the Illyrian Celta with the Illyrians. Their government was aristocratical. The nobles formed a national assembly. The commons were regarded as little better than slaves. They were large, and of great bodily strength, impetuous in their attacks, but not well able to endure hardships. A huge sword, generally of copper, was their chief weapon. Their priests, the Druids (q. v.), enjoyed the greatest authority.

CELTES, Conrad; born, in 1459, at Protuch, in Franconia. His original name was Meissel, which he changed into Celtes Protucius. He ran away from his parents. and studied in Cologne. In 1484

and 1485, he studied under the tuition of Rodolph Agricola, at Heidelberg, and became a philologist and Latin poet. He then travelled to Italy, where he attendea the lectures of the most learned teachers of his time. On his return through Illyria, Hungary and Poland, he was taught astronomy and astrology by Albertus Bru. tus, and met with the most favorable_reception at the German courts. In Nu.. remburg, he was crowned by the emperor Frederic III (1491), on account of the reputation which he had acquired by his Latin poems, being the first German poet who received this honor. He afterwards travelled for 10 years, visiting all the universities in Germany, and found, at length, a resting-place in Vienna, where Maximilian I appointed him, in 1501, professor of poetry and rhetoric, and president of the faculty established for the study of classical antiquities. He left a history and description of Nuremburg, a poem on the situation and manners of Germany, sev eral philosophical, rhetorical and biographical works, and a number of poems. He considered the study of languages, not, like other philologists of his time, as an object of pursuit in itself, but only as a means for obtaining an acquaintance with those sciences which have a more immediate bearing on the business of life, among which he placed history and ge ography first. His plan for a great literary society (sodalitas Celtica), for which he had already obtained grants of privileges from the emperor, was interrupted by his death in 1508. Only the Rhenish society, which he founded in Heidelberg, outlived him.

CELTIBERI, or CELTIBERIANS; inhabitants of Celtiberia, a country along the Iberus, in the north-east part of Spain. They formed the most numerous tribe in Spain, and originated from Iberians mixed with Celts. They were brave, and their cuneus was formidable even to the Romans. They despised agriculture. After a long resistance to the Romans, they were, at last, in the Sertorian war, subjected to their sovereignty, adopted their manners, language, dress, &c. They were divided into six tribes-the Bellones, Arevaci, Peleudones, north of the Durius; and the Lusones, Belli and Ditthi, more to the south.

CEMENTATION; a chemical process, in which a metal (and often other bodics) is placed in connexion with other substances, often in layers (stratum super stratum), in close vessels, that the former may be separated from its combinations, or changed (frequently oxydated), at a high tempera