the

the Roman empire, in the beginning of the 4th century, the emperors summoned councils, which were called acumenical, that is, universal councils, because all the bishops of the empire were invited to them. Among these, the most remarkable are, 1. the council of Nice (q. v.), in 325, by which the dogma respecting the Son of God was settled; 2. that of Constantinople (q. v.), 381, by which the doctrine concerning the Holy Ghost was decided; 3. that of Ephesus, 431; and, 4. that of Chalcedon, 451; in which two last, the doctrine of the union of the divine and human nature in Christ was more precisely determined. In the 4th century, the opinion arose, that the councils were under the particular direction of the Holy Ghost; hence the great authority which their resolutions obtained. Like the Roman emperors, the German kings exercised, at first, the right of assembling synods; in particular, Charlemagne, during whose reign the clergy of the Frankish empire held a council at Frankfort on the Maine, in 749, which condemned the worship of images introduced among the Greeks. In the middle ages, popes maintained the right of summoning councils, which, however, cannot be considered as general councils, since the Western church was soon separated from the Greek. The principal of these Latin councils are that of Clermont (1096), in the reign of Urban II, in which the first crusade was resolved upon, and some later ones, in which a reunion with the Greeks was attempted. In consequence of the great schism towards the end of the 14th century, which gave rise to, at first two, and afterwards three, candidates for the papal throne, the council of Pisa was convened, in 1409, which declared that the popes were subordinate to the general council, and condemned the schismatic candidates. After the dissolution of the council of Pisa, without having terminated the schism, the council of Constance (q. v.) was held in 1414, the most solemn and numerous of all the councils, which revived the principle, that a general council is superior to the pope, adjusted the schism, and pronounced the condemnation of John Huss (1415), and of his friend Jorome of Prague (1416). The council of Bale (q. v.), in 1431, asserted the same principle, and intended a reformation, if not in the doctrines, yet in the constitution and discipline of the church. At the time of the reformation, the Protestants repeatedly demanded such a council; even the emperor, and the states which had remained faithful to the old doctrine,

thought it the best means for restoring peace to the church. But the popes, recollecting the decisions at Pisa, Constance and Bâle, so disadvantageous to their authority, constantly endeavored to evade it. At length the pope could no longer resist the importunities of the emperor and the states. He summoned a council at Trent (q. v.), which began its session in 1545, and labored chiefly to confirm the doctrines of the Catholic church against the Protestants. Since the council of Trent, there has been no council, in which all the Catholic states of the West have been represented; but there have been several national councils, particularly in France. The Lutherans have never settled their church concerns by councils; but in the Calvinistic churches, many particular synods have been held, among which, that of Dort (1618), which confirmed the peculiar opinions of Calvin on election, in opposition to the Arminians, is distinguished. The Protestant councils could never have the same authority as the Catholic in matters of doctrine, for the Protestants do not consider their clergy as constituting the church: moreover, in the Protestant countries of Europe, each monarch has assumed the station of head of the church of his country. The chief questions in regard to councils are, 1. What is their authority in matters of doctrine and discipline? 2. What is necessary to give them the character of œcumenical or general councils, and to which of those that have been held should this name be confined? 3. Who has the right to convoke councils, to preside over them, to be a member of them? 4. Whether their decrees are authoritative per se, or whether they require to be confirmed by some other power, as the pope, for instance? All these points are of vital interest to the Catholic church, and have occasioned violent contests. They involve too many considerations to be treated here, and we must refer the reader to Catholic works on this point. Among others, the Dictionnaire de Théologie, par Bergier, extrait de l'Encyclopédie Méthodique, Toulouse, 1817, contains a full article Concile.

COUNCIL, AULIC. (See Aulic Council., COUNCIL OF STATE, in modern politics; a term of very vague meaning. In gen eral, it means a council intended to assist the sovereign, and composed of members, whose chief business it is to discuss, advise, legislate or decide; it being the duty of the ministers to execute. Buillard's Histoire du Conseil d'État (Paris, 1718, 4to.).

and Guyot's Traité des Droits des Dignités, et Offices du Royaume (Paris, 1787), show the indefinite, vacillating and arbitrary character of the powers of the conseil d'état, in France, before the revolution. It judged cases of maritime prizes, often decided in civil and criminal processes, determined the authority of the papal bulls, &c. The abolition of such a body was an act of wisdom in the constituent assembly. It was succeeded by the court of cassation (q. v.), which is not only the court of ultimate appeal, but also defines the jurisdiction of different tribunals in case of conflict. The constitution of the year III established a council of state, under the direction of the consuls, pour rédiger les projets de loi et de réglements, et pour résoudre les difficultés en matière administrative. These extensive and vague powers of the council contained the seeds of mischief, particularly as that body was under the direction of the consuls. In 1802, the conseil d'etat was constituted juge des appels comme d'abus; and this abuse still continues. The powers of the council were still further enlarged by senatus-consultes, and even by imperial decrees: thus it was empowered to annul the decisions of the cour des comptes, and still retains this dangerous authority. Under the Bourbons, the conseil d'état has been intrusted with powers of indefinite extent, and of all kinds, which are by no means vested in the executive, by the charte. Besides this, the members are appointed and removed at the will of the king. This council has, says Corménin (Questions de Droit Administratif, p. 5), une juridiction tellement étendue, qu'on ne trouve rien de semblable ni en France dans les temps antérieurs à la révolution, ni dans les autres pays de l'Europe, telle enfin, qu'elle se mêle à presque tous nos intérêts, qu'elle affecte presque toutes nos propriétés, qu'elle touche à presque toutes nos personnes. In Spain, when the constitution of the cortes was in force, a constitutional council of state existed. In Prussia, an assembly composed of the highest civil and military officers, with the princes, is called Staatsrath (council of state), but, of course, no power is vested in that body. They give their opinion on questions laid before them by the king. The prince royal is its president. In some of the U. States, there are councils, which the governors are obliged to consult upon executive business, and which have a negative upon their appointinents to office.

COUNCIL PRIVY, in England, is the principal council belonging to the king.

In 1679, the number of members, having become inconveniently large, was limited to 30. It is now, however, again indefinite, but only such members attend as are summoned on each particular occasion. The lord president of the council is the fourth great officer of state. He is appointed, by letters patent under the great seal, during pleasure. Privy counsellors are nominated by the king, without patent or grant, and removable at his pleasure. The power of the privy council, in offences against the government, extends only to inquiry, and their committal is not privileged beyond that of an ordinary justice of the peace. But in plantation or admiralty causes, in disputes of colonies concerning their charters, and in some other cases, an appeal lies to the king in council. The privy council continues for six months after the accession of a new prince, unless he previously dissolve it. Proclamations, which, if consonant to the law of the land, are binding on the subject, are issued with the advice of this council.

COUNCIL AND SESSION, LORDS OF; the supreme judges of the highest court of Scotland. (See Scotland.)

COUNCIL BLUFFS; a military post belonging to the U. States, on the west bank of the Missouri, about 50 miles above the junction of the La Platte, and 650 above the junction of the Missouri with the Mississippi. Lon. 96° 42′ W.; lat. 41° 31' N It is an important station, the highest the Missouri, that is occupied by the States as a military position. Before the U. States occupied this post, the Ottoes and Missouris held a council there, Aug. 3, 1814, which gave rise to the nare. Bluff was originally a sea term meaning high land. (See Pickering's Vocabulary of Americanisms.)

COUNSEL; those who give counsel in law; any counsellor or advocate, or any number of counsellors, barristers or sergeants, as the plaintiff's counsel or the defendant's counsel. In this sense, the word has no plural, but is applicable, in the singular number, to one or more persons.

COUNSELLOR, in law, is one whose profession is to give advice in questions of law, and to manage causes for clients (See Advocate.)

Counsellor (in German, Rath). In Germany, the mania for titles is carried to a greater degree than in any other country in Europe. Almost every man is desirous of possessing one, and the title of even the lowest officer is reverently repeated, with a preceding Mr., as often as the in

dividual is addressed by persons of equal or lower rank; for instance, we have Mr. Lieutenant,nay,sometimes Mr.Taxgatherer, and even Mrs. Taxgatheress (Frau Steuereinnehmerin). The title Rath (counsellor), in particular, has been distributed with a most ridiculous profusion. In all branches of government, you meet counsellors in abundance. Every one is a counsellor who has passed through certain preparatory degrees, particularly in Prussia. In fact, the term, in Prussia, is as common as mandarin in China. The judges are not judges, but court-counsellors, which title, for the sake of precision, is amplified to country, or city, or high-country-court counsel lor (Oberlandesgerichtsrath). There are also Finanz-Räthe, Medizinal-Räthe, Regierungs-Räthe, &c.; and, in all branches, Geheime-Räthe, as, Geheime-Medizinal-Räthe, Geheime-Finanz-Räthe, &c. Moreover, as it always happens that honors and titles gradually decline in value, new ones must be invented: thus, in Prussia, the title Geheime Rath being given to persons who have nothing to do with the private deliberations of the government, it has been deemed necessary to give to the actual counsellors a new and distinguishing title: they are called real-privy-counsellors. And you find, therefore, in Prussia Wirkliche-Geheime-Ober-Finanz-Räthe (real-privy-highfinance-counsellors)! and so in all branches. And who are these real-privy-high &c.'s? You would think they were at least several degrees higher than the privy counsellors of England. They are, in fact, however, mere assistants of the minister. Besides this host of Räthe, who have actually official duties to discharge, there is another swarm, equally numerous, of people whose title of counsellor is a mere title of honor, like the Chinese peacock's feather. The title most generally bestowed in this way is Hofrath (counsellor of the court). Hofrathe and Geheime-Hofräthe are so common in Germany, that a traveller observes, if you spit out of the window on a crowd, it is ten to one that you hit a Hofrath. There are also Bau-Räthe (buildg-counsellors), Steuer-Räthe (tax-counsellors), Universitäts-Räthe, CommerzienRäthe; and again the same titles, with the honorary term Geheime (privy) prefixed, as Geheime-Bau-Räthe, &c. The title of Kriegs-Rath (counsellor of war) is often given to men who have nothing military in their occupation or habits. The old proverb says, Sat verbum sapienti, but here we are tempted to exclaim, Sat verbum stulto. COUNSELLOR, PRIVY. (See Council, Privy.)

The civil

COUNT, COUNTEE, or COUNTY (from the Latin comes), appears to have been first used, as a title of dignity, under the reign of Constantine. During the existence of the republic, the inferior officers, as tribuni, præfecti, scriba, medici, haruspices, accensi, præcones, who accompanied the proconsules and proprætores into their provincial governments, were known as the comites or cohors of their principal. (Cic. pro Rab. Post. 6.) On the establishment of the imperial government, the name was applied to the court and household of the prince; and Dio (53) mentions a council of senators, selected by Augustus as his comites. (Salmas. ad Sueton. Tib. 46.) On the first distribution of his dominions, and the foundation of the new capital by Constantine, 10 out of 35 provincial generals received the title of comes. officers, likewise, who were honored with this distinction, gradually became very numerous, and lists of them may be found in the Cod. Theod. vi, 12—20, in the Notitia Imper., and in the glossaries of Spelman and Du Cange. After the fall of the Roman power, the title was retained by the conquerors; and, under Charlemagne, it denoted equally a military or civil employment. About the end of the 15th century, in Germany, and under the last princes of the Merovingian race in France, the title appears to have become hereditary in families, from the weakness of the crown, which was unable to recall the dignity which it had once bestowed. Selden, in his Titles of Honor, treats the origin and progress of the title at much length, and with his usual learning. Such is the account usually given of the origin of the counts of modern times. The institutions of the ancient German tribes may, however, have contributed much to the establishment of this class of nobles. In early times, before the existence of the Latin comites, the Germans had officers chosen, at least in some tribes, by the people. These were a kind of inferior judges. After the Franks became the ruling nation, they made a change in their character. The kings now appointed them, and they exercised jurisdiction over certain districts in the king's name, with the title of Grafen. The word has been derived very variously from grau (gray or venerable), from yodow, to write (like the GallicoLatin word graffare, whence greffier), &c., from gefera, signifying companion, and corresponding to the Latin comes; but there is little doubt that it is really from the Saxon gerefa (gatherer, and subse quently judge). These ancient officers

are, perhaps, as fairly entitled as the comites to be considered the root of the subsequent counts. The German title Graf corresponds to the title count in other countries of Europe. From the instructions given to these Grafen, which Marcalf has preserved, it is evident that they superintended the administration of justice, the police, and the taxes. After the time of the Carlovingian dynasty, the office and name remained, but different classes of counts or Grafen were formed; thus Pfalzgrafen, or comites palatii, the judges of the court, who decided whether a case should be brought before the king; Markgrafen, counts of the frontiers; Holzgrafen, counts of the forests, that is, inspectors, &c. These royal officers soon usurped power which did not belong to them, and treated the people so badly, that the emperors and kings were obliged to go themselves into the provinces, and hold courts, or to send particular officers for this purpose, called Sendgrafen. The capitularies of Charlemagne contain very precise instructions to these officers, on the subject of their duties. The sheriffs in England were originally the deputies of the English counts or earls, who correspond to the German Grafen. Their Latin title is still vicecomes. Their English title, derived from shire and gerefa, has the same origin with the German Graf. (See Sheriff.) In the German empire, the power of the counts increased with the progress of the nation, whilst the imperial government became weaker and weaker. They even began to transmit their titles to their children, as did also the dukes, and other officers, in those times of unpunished usurpation. In the 12th century, the division of counties, on the continent of Europe, was abolished, and thus the counts lost their jurisdiction, except on their own possessions. In point of rank, the English earls are considered as corresponding to the continental counts. (See Earl.)

COUNTERGUARDS, in fortification, are small ramparts with parapets and ditches, to cover some part of the body of a place. They are of several shapes, and differently situated. They are generally made before the bastion, in order to cover the opposite flanks from being seen from the covert way, and, in this case, consist of two faces, making a salient angle parallel to the faces of the bastion. They are sometimes made before the ravelins. The cost of building them is more than proportionate to their value, especially when they are small, and without cannon, in which case, particularly, they are called couvrefaces.

COUNTERMARK, in numismatics (from counter and mark). Antiquaries call by this name those stamps or impressions which are found on ancient coins or medals, and have been given since their first impress in the mint. These countermarks or stamps are often executed without any care, and frequently obliterate the most interesting portion of the original inscription. Thus they correspond with the codices rescripti. In performing this operation, the new mark was stamped upon the coin with a heavy blow of a mallet upon a punch, on which was engraved the countermark, of a round, oval, or square shape. The use of countermarks appears to have been first adopted by the Greeks, but it is impossible to say at what period of their history. Upon the Greek coins so altered, the countermarks are generally figures, accompanied by inscriptions. Those of Rome seldom contain any thing more than inscriptions and monograms. There have been various opinions respecting the cause of these countermarks; some antiquaries thinking that they were to indicate an augmentation of the value of the money upon which they were stamped; others, that they were vouchers for workmen; and, again, that they were only struck upon money taken or received from foreign enemies. Jobert, Millin, De Boze, Bimard, Mabudel, Pelleim, Florez, and other antiquaries, have exercised their conjectural skill on this subject. During the long war with revolutionary France, England stamped millions of Spanish dollars with small, oval countermarks of the head of George III upon the neck of the Spanish monarch. Many of them were completely restamped or countermarked in the mint, and both impressions were sometimes visible, the English head and reverse not completely destroying the Spanish head, armorial bearings and inscriptions.

COUNTERPOINT signifies, in music, a part or parts added to a given melody. In ancient times, musical sounds were represented by certain letters of the alphabet. A great improvement was made on the old system by the celebrated Guido d'Arezzo, who substituted points or dots in the place of letters. The simple harmony of that period consisted of notes equal in length, and the term contrapunctus, or counterpoint, was applied to it in consequence of the points by which it was represented being placed under, or, as it were, against each other, on the staff. By counterpoint, we understand, therefore, the several parts which compose musical

harmony, and the science of counterpoint consists in a knowledge of the rules according to which those parts must be constructed. On this account, the term is frequently used for musical composition general. When the notes employed re of equal length, the counterpoint is called simple. When notes of various length are used, the counterpoint is said to be figurate or florid.

COUNTERPROOF, in engraving; an impression taken from a newly-printed proof of a copperplate, for the purpose of a closer investigation of the state of the plate, as the proof is, in every respect, the reverse of the plate, while the counterproof has every thing the same way.

COUNTER-REMONSTRANTS (Contraremonstranten). (See Remonstrants, and Goma rists, under the article of Reformed Church.) COUNTERSCARP, in fortification, is properly the slope or talus of the exterior side of a ditch, towards the field. The inner slope, on the side towards the place, is called escarpe. Sometimes the covert way and glacis are termed counterscarp.

COUNTY; originally, the district or territory under the jurisdiction of a count or earl; now, a circuit, or particular portion of a state or kingdom, separated from the rest of the territory, for certain purposes, in the administration of justice. It is called also a shire. (See Shire.) Each county has its sheriff and its court, with other officers employed in the administration of justice, and the execution of the laws. In England, there are 52 counties, and in each is a lord-lieutenant, who has command of the militia. The several states of America are divided by law into counties, in each of which is a county court of inferior jurisdiction; and, in each, the supreme court of the state holds stated sessions.-County palatine, in England, is a county distinguished by particular privileges; so called a palatio (the palace), because the chief officer in the county had originally royal powers, or the same powers, in the administration of justice, as the king had in his palace; but these powers are now abridged. The counties palatine, in England, are Lancaster, Chester and Durham. There is a court of chancery in each of the counties palatine of Durham and Lancaster. There are many privileges attached to these counties. In none of them are the king's ordinary writs of any force.-3 Blackstone, 79. (See Count.)

County Corporate, in England, is a title given to several cities or boroughs, which have extraordinary privileges, so that they form counties by themselves.

COUP (French; a blow). This term is used in various connexions, to convey the idea of promptness and force.-Coup de main, in military language, signifies a prompt, vigorous and successful attack.— Coup d'œil, in a military sense; a rapid conception of the advantages and weaknesses of positions and arrangements of troops. It is also used for a quick comprehension of all the points and bearings of any subject.-Coup de théâtre; a sudden and striking change in the action.-Coup d'état is a forcible and arbitrary political measure.

COURLAND (in Russian, Kourliandia; in German, Kurland); formerly a duchy, to which also belonged Semigallia. At present, they form together the Russian government of Mittau, containing 10,280 square miles, and 581,300 inhabitants. Courland lies on the Baltic. The Dwina forms its frontier to the east. It is situated between lat. 55° 40′ and 57° 45′ N., and lon. 20° 55′ and 27° 10′ E., and is generally flat. Morasses and lakes are numerous. The climate is cold. Though healthy in general, particularly on the coasts, yet fever, dysentery and gout are not uncommon. The soil is in general sandy, in some parts clayey, almost everywhere susceptible of cultivation, but not remarkably fertile. The principal productions are grain, flax and hemp. The forests are numerous, and some almost impenetrable. In some parts, the axe has never yet penetrated. There is little pasturage, and the cattle are small. Goats are numerous: swine and birds do not abound. The forests contain wild boars, bears, wolves, elks, and other game. The coasts, lakes and rivers abound with fish. The country contains mines of iron, quarries of gypsum, turf-bogs and mineral waters. Yellow amber is collected on the shores of the Baltic. The manufactures are few, comprising only those of paper, potashes, spirit distilled from grain, and bricks. The exports are grain, hemp, flax, flax-seed, linseed oil, timber, planks, skins, wax, honey, tallow, resin, and other raw products. The principal trade is carried on at the ports of Windau and Liebau. The roads are obstructed by forests and morasses. The population is composed principally of Lettonians, Livonians, Germans and Russians. There are also some Poles and Jews. The greater part of the inhabitants are Lutherans; about one fifth are Catholics. The nobility is composed of Poles, Russians and Germans, and possesses great privileges. Courland was an ciently a part of Livonia, and, like th