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hills of the south are mostly stocked with the white-faced, hornless, Cheviot breed; though the best kind of the Black-faced is also reared in the same locality, but both breeds are seldom reared on the same farm. Thus cattle, sheep, and wool, are the staple products of pastoral farming.

36. Pastoral farms are chiefly appropriated to the rearing of one kind of sheep, or one kind of cattle; though both classes of stock are reared where valleys and mountain-tops meet on the same farm. The arable culture practised on them is confined to the raising of provisions for the support of the shepherds and cattle-herds, and of a few turnips, for the support of the stock during the severest weather in winter; but the principal winter food of the stock is hay, which is obtained by enclosing and mowing pieces of natural grass on spots of good land, which are generally found on the banks of a rivulet. All pastoral farms are large, some containing many thousands of acres,-nay, miles in extent; but from 1500 to 3000 acres is perhaps an ordinary size. Locality entirely determines this kind of farming.

37. The stocking of a pastoral farm consists of a breeding or flying stock of sheep, or a breeding stock of cattle, and a proportion of barren stock are reared, which, sold at a proper age, are fattened in the low country. A large capital is thus required to stock at first, and afterwards maintain, such a farm; for, although the quality of the land may support few heads of stock per acre, yet, as the farms are large, the number required to stock them is very considerable. The rent, when consisting of a fixed sum of money, would be of small amount per acre, but its amount must of course be fixed by the number of stock the land will maintain, and it is not unfrequently calculated at so much per head the land is expected to maintain.

on carse land. A carse is a district of country consisting of deep horizontal depositions of alluvial or diluvial clay, on one or both sides of a considerable river, and generally comprehends a large tract of country. In almost all respects, a carse is quite the opposite to a pastoral district. Carse land implies a flat, rich, clay soil, capable of raising all sorts of grain to great perfection, and unsuited to the cultivation of the pasture grasses, and, of course, to the rearing of live-stock. A pastoral district, on the other hand, is always hilly, the soil generally thin, poor, various, and commonly of a light texture, much more suited to the growth of natural pasture grasses than of grain, and, of course, to the rearing of livestock. Soil entirely decides carse farming.

40. Being all arable, a carse farm is mostly stocked with animals and implements of labour; and these, with seed-corn for the large proportion of the land under the plough, require a considerable outlay of capital. Carse land always maintains a high rent per acre, whether consisting solely of money or of money and corn valued at the fiars prices. A carse farm, requiring a large capital and much labour, is never of great extent, seldom exceeding 200 acres.

41. A carse farmer requires to be well acquainted with the cultivation of grain, and almost nothing else, as he can rear no live-stock; and all he requires of them are a few cows, to supply milk to his own household and farm-servants, and a number of cattle in the straw-yard in winter, to trample down the large quantity of straw into manure, and they are purchased when wanted. There are no sheep.

42. A third sort of farming is what is practised in the neighbourhood of large towns. In the immediate vicinity of London, farms are appropriated to the growth of garden vegetables for Covent-Garden market, and, of course, such culture can have nothing in common with either pastoral or carse farms. In the neighbourhood of most towns, garden vegetables, with the exception of potatoes, are not so much cultivated as green crops, such as turnips and grass, and dry fodder, such as straw and hay, for the use of cowfeeders 39. Another kind of farming is practised and stable-keepers. In this kind of farm

38. A pastoral farmer should be well acquainted with the rearing and management of cattle or sheep, whichever his farm is best suited for. A knowledge of general field culture is of little use to him, though he should know how to raise turnips and make hay.

ing all the produce is disposed of, and manure received in return; and it constitutes a retail trade, in which articles are bought and sold in small quantities, mostly for ready money. When the town is not large enough to consume all the disposable produce, the farmer purchases cattle and sheep to eat the turnips and trample the straw into manure, in winter. Any pasture grass is mostly in paddocks for the accommodation of stock sent to the weekly market. Locality entirely decides this kind of farming.

43. The chief qualification of an occupant of this kind of farm, is a thorough acquaintance with the raising of green crops,-potatoes, clover, and turnips; and his particular study is raising the most prolific varieties, to have large quantities to dispose of, and most suitable to the wants of his customers.

44. The capital required for a farm of this kind, which is all arable, is as large as that for a carse one. The rent is always high per acre, and the extent of land not large, seldom exceeding 300

acres.

45. A fourth kind of farming is the dairy. It directs its attention to the making of butter and cheese, and the sale of milk, and the farms are laid out for this express purpose; but the sale of milk is frequently conjoined with the raising of green crops, in the neighbourhood of large towns, as in the preceding class of farms, (42,) and the cows are fed on cut grass in summer, and on boiled turnips and hay in winter. A true dairy-farm requires old pasture. Its chief business is the management of cows, and their produce; and whatever arable culture is practised, is made subservient to the maintenance and comfort of the dairy stock. The milk, where practicable, is sold; where beyond the reach of sale, it is partly churned into butter, which is sold either fresh or salted, and partly made into cheese, either sweet or skimmed. Stock are reared on dairyfarms only to a small extent, such as a few quey (heifer) calves, yearly to replenish the cow stock; no aged stock are fattened in winter, as on farms in the vicinity of towns; and the bull calves are frequently fed for veal, or sold to be reared.

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46. The purchase of cows is the principal expense of stocking a dairy-farm; and as the purchase of live-stock in every state, especially breeding-stock, is always expensive, and cows are liable to many casualties, a dairy-farm requires a considerable capital. It is, however, seldom of large extent, seldom exceeding 150 acres. The arable portion of the farm, supplying the green crop for winter food and litter, does not incur much outlay, as hayobtained chiefly from old grass-forms the principal food of the cows in winter. The rent of dairy-farms is high.

47. A dairy-farmer should be well acquainted with the properties and management of milk cows, the making of butter and cheese, the feeding of veal and pork, and the rearing of horses; and he should also possess as much knowledge of arable culture as to raise green crops and make good hay.

48. A fifth method of farming is that which is practised in most arable districts, consisting of every kind of soil not strictly carse land. This method consists of a regular system of cultivating grains and sown grasses, with partial rearing and purchasing, or wholly purchasing of cattle. No sheep are reared in this system, being purchased in autumn, to be fed on turnips in winter, and sold fat in spring. This system may be said to combine the professions of the farmer, the cattle-dealer, and the sheep-dealer.

49. A decided improvement on this system long ago originated, and has since been practised, in the counties of Berwick and Roxburgh, in Scotland; and of Northumberland in England. The farmer of this improved system combines all the

qualifications of the various kinds of farming enumerated. Rearing cattle and sheep, and having wool to dispose of, he is a stock-farmer. Cultivating grains and the sown grasses, he possesses the knowledge of the carse farmer. Converting milk into butter and cheese, after the calves are weaned, he passes the autumnal months as a dairy farmer. Feeding cattle and sheep in winter on turnips, he attends the markets of fat-stock as well the ordinary farmer in arable districts; and breeding and rearing all his stock, he avoids the precarious trade of the dealer in stock. Thus combining all the kinds of farming within the limits of his farm, he supplies the particular demand of each market, and thereby enlarges the sphere of his profits, which are every year more uniform and certain than any of his co-farmers.

50. This is called the mixed husbandry, because it embraces all the sorts of farming practised in the country. It is prosecuted in a different manner from that in localities where a particular branch is pursued as the only system of farming; because each branch must be conducted so as to contribute to the welfare of the rest, and in upholding a mutual dependence of parts, a harmonious whole is produced. Such a multiplicity of objects demand more than ordinary attention and skill. Doubtless the farmers of the other modes of farming are skilful in the practice of the locality in which they are placed, but the more varied practice of the mixed husbandry incites versatility of talent and quickness of judgment; and, accordingly, it has made its farmers the most skilful and intelligent in the country.

51. The Border counties are not only the most highly cultivated portion of the kingdom, but contain the most valuable breeds of live-stock; and as the mixed husbandry cannot be conducted within narrow limits, the farms are large, not less than 500 acres in extent. The capital required to furnish the live-stock and the means of arable culture is considerable, though perhaps less than for the last-named system, (48,) in which the entire stock are purchased and sold every year; and hence they are termed a flying-stock. The rents of both systems are about the same. Neither is determined by any peculiarity

of soil and locality, like the other methods, but the mixed has a happy form of constitution in adapting itself to most circumstances.

52. Now, one of these systems the pupil must adopt for his profession; and which he should choose, depends on circumstances. If he succeed to a family inheritance, the kind of farming he will follow will depend on that pursued by his predecessor, which he will learn accordingly; but should he be free to choose for himself, I would advise him to adopt the mixed husbandry, as containing within itself all the varieties of farming requisite for a farmer to know.

53. My reason for recommending the mixed husbandry is that it practically possesses advantages over every other. Thus : In pastoral farming, the stock undergo minute examination, for certain purposes, only at distantly stated periods; and owing to the wide space over which they have to roam for food, comparatively little attention is bestowed on them by shepherds and cattle-herds. The pastoral farmer has thus no particular object to attract his attention at home between those long intervals; and in the mean while time is apt to become irksome in cultivating a limited space of arable land. The carse farmer, after the spring work is finished, before the cows begin to calve, has nothing but hay-making and bare-fallowing in summer, to occupy his mind until the harvest.-Dairy-farming affords little occupation to the farmer. The farmer near large towns has little to do in summer, from turnip-seed to harvest.-The farmer of mixed husbandry has abundant and regular employment at all seasons. Cattle and sheep feeding, and marketing grain, pleasantly occupy the short days of winter. Seed-sowing of all kinds affords abundant employment in spring. The rearing of young stock, sale of wool, and culture of green crops, fill up the time in summer until harvest; and autumn, in all circumstances, brings its own busy avocations in gathering the fruits of the earth. Strictly speaking, mixed husbandry does not afford one week of real leisure,-if the short period from assorting the lambs in the beginning of August, to putting the sickle to the corn be excepted,-and that period

is contracted or prolonged, according as the farmer. It is his province to originate harvest is early or late.

54. There is another view to be taken of the mixed husbandry; it will not in any year entirely disappoint the hopes of the farmer. He will never have to bewail the almost total destruction of his stock by the rot, or the severe storms of winter, as the pastoral farmer sometimes has. He cannot suffer so serious a loss as the carse farmer, when his grain is blighted or burnt up with drought, or its price depressed for a succession of years. Should his stock be greatly injured, or much deteriorated in value by such casualties, he has the grain to rely on; and should the grain fail to a serious extent, the stock may still insure him a profitable return. It is scarcely within the bounds of probability that a total destruction of live-stock, wool, and grain, would occur in any year. One may fail, it is true, and the prices of all may continue depressed for years; but, on the other hand, reasonable profits have been realised from them all in the same year. Thus, safeguards exist against a total loss, and there is a greater certainty of a profitable return from capital invested in the mixed than in any other kind of husbandry known.

ON THE PERSONS REQUIRED TO CONDUCT AND EXECUTE THE LABOUR OF THE FARM.

55. The persons who labour a farm constitute the most important part of its staff. Their duties should therefore be well understood. They are the farmer himself, the steward or grieve, the ploughman, the hedger or labourer, the shepherd, the cattle-man, the field-worker, and the dairy-maid. These have each duties to perform which, in their respective spheres, should harmonise and never interfere with one another. Should any occurrence happen to disturb the harmony of their joint labour, it must arise from the misapprehension or ignorance of the interfering party, whose derelictions should be corrected by the presiding power. I shall enumerate the duties incumbent on these respective functionaries.

the entire system of management,-to determine the period for commencing and pursuing every operation,-to issue general orders of management to the steward, when there is one, and when none, to give minute instructions to the ploughmen for the performance of every separate field operation,-to exercise a general superintendence over the field-workers,-to observe the general behaviour of all,-to see if the cattle are cared for,―to ascertain the condition of all the crops,-to guide the shepherd,-to direct the hedger or labourer,— to effect the sales of the surplus produce,

to conduct the purchases required for the progressive improvement of the farm, to disburse the expenses of management, -to pay the rent to the landlord,—and to fulfil the obligations incumbent on him as a residenter of the parish. All these duties are common to the farmer and the independent steward who manages a farm. Such a steward and a farmer are thus far on a similar footing: but the farmer occupies a loftier station. He is his own master,

makes bargains to suit his own interests, stands on an equal footing with the landlord on the lease,-has entire control over the servants, hiring and discharging them at any term he pleases, and can grant favours to servants and friends. The farmer does not perform all those duties in any one day, but in the fulfilment of them in due order, so large a portion of his time is occupied, that he finds little leisure to go from home, and seldom does so to a distance, except in the season when few operations are performed on a farm, viz., the end of summer. Besides these professional duties, the farmer has to perform those of a domestic and social nature, like every other good member of society.

57. Steward or Grieve.-The duty of the steward, or grieve, as he is called in some parts of Scotland, and bailiff in England, consists in receiving general instructions from his master the farmer, which he sees executed by the people under his charge. He exercises a direct control over the ploughmen and fieldworkers; and unreasonable disobedience to his commands, on their part, is reprehended as strongly by the farmer as if 56. Farmer. And first, those of the the affront had been offered to himself :

I say unreasonable disobedience, because the farmer is the sole judge of whether the steward has been reasonable in his orders. It is the duty of the steward to enforce the commands of his master, and to check every deviation from rectitude and tendency against his master's interests he may observe in the conduct of the servants. Although he should thus protect the interests of his master from the aggressions of any servant, it is not generally understood that he has control over the shepherd or hedger. The farmer reveals to the steward alone the plans of his management; intrusts him with the keys of the corn-barn, granaries, and provision-stores; delegates to him the power to act in his absence as his representative on the farm; and confides in his integrity, truth, and good behaviour. When a steward conducts himself with propriety in his master's absence, and exhibits at all times discretion, activity, and honesty, he is justly regarded as a valuable ser

vant.

58. Personally, the farm-steward does not always labour with his own hands; verifying, by judicious superintendence, the truth of the adage, that " one head is better than two pair of hands." He should, however, never be idle. He should deliver the daily allowance of corn to the horses. He should be the first person out of bed in the morning, and the last in it at night. He should sow the seed-corn in spring, superintend the field-workers in summer, tend the harvest field and build the stacks in autumn, and thrash the corn with the mill, and clean it with the winnowing machine in winter. On very large farms he cannot perform all these duties, and selects one or another as suits the exigency of the case. On some farms he even works a pair of horses like a common ploughman; in which case he cannot personally sow the corn, superintend the workers, build the stacks, or thrash the corn, unless another person take the charge of his horses for the time. This is an objectionable mode of employing a steward; because the nicer operations, such as sowing corn, &c., must be intrusted to another, and, most likely, in

ferior person. But in by far the greatest number of cases, the steward does not work horses: on the contrary, when a

ploughman qualifies himself to become a steward, it is chiefly with the view of enjoying immunity from that species of drudgery. In any event, the steward should be able to keep an account of the work-people's time, and of the quantity of grain thrashed, consumed on the farm, and delivered to purchasers.

59. Stewards are not required on every sort of farm. On pastoral farms, his service is of no use, so that it is on arable farms alone that they are required. His services are the most valuable where the greatest multiplicity of subjects demand attention. Thus, he is a more useful servant on a farm of mixed husbandry than on one in the neighbourhood of a town, or on a carse farm. But even on some farms of mixed culture, the services of a steward are dispensed with altogether; in which case the farmer himself gives orders directly to the ploughmen, or indirectly through the hedger or cattle-man, as he may choose to appoint to receive his instructions. In such a case, the same person is also intrusted to corn the horses; for the ploughmen are never intrusted to do it, except in certain circumstances, as they are apt to abuse such a trust by giving too much corn, to the probable injury of the horses. The same person performs other parts of a steward's duty; such as sowing corn, superintending field-workers, and thrashing corn: or those duties may be divided betwixt the cattle-man and hedger. On the large farm in Berwickshire on which I learned farming, there was no steward, the cattle-man delivering the master's orders and corning the horses, and the hedger sowing the corn, building the stacks, and thrashing the corn. The object of this arrangement was to save the wages of a steward, since the farmer himself was able to undertake the general superintendence. I conducted my own farm for several years without a steward, the hedger acting as such.

60. Ploughman.-The duties ofa ploughman are clearly defined. The principal duty is to take charge of a pair of horses, and work them at every kind of labour for which horses are employed on a farm. Horse-labour on a farm is various. It is connected with the plough, the cart, the sowing-machines, the roller, and the thrash

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