503. I have hitherto purposely abstained from even mentioning the fertility of soils, whether natural or artificial, as the subject will more appropriately engage our attention when we come to treat of manures. On viewing, then, the chemical composition of soils of known natural fertility, a standard will be afforded us by which we may, perhaps, be enabled to render other soils equally fertile by artificial means; but all our exertions may soon find a limit in this direction, inasmuch as without a certain amount of impalpable matter, soils cannot possibly be fertile, and how can we produce this impalpable matter? Yet, while the existence of this material proves the soil to be mechanically well suited for cultivation, chemical analysis alone can prove its absolute value to the farmer. The subject of soils is thus full of interest to the agricultural student.

504. ZOOLOGY. Zoology treats of the classification and habits of all animals, from the lowest or simplest to the highest or most complicated structure-man. It is thus a comprehensive branch of natural history, embracing within its range the study of beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects. The history and habits of the quadrupeds and birds that form the domesticated live stock of the farm, cannot fail to engage the interest of the agricultural student; and though such a study may not afford him much information in the practical treatment of stock, it will certainly present him with a comprehensive view of the animal economy, and of the relations which one class of animals bear to every other. The geographical distribution, too, of animated beings over the surface of the

globe is a subject which at once finds acceptance in any intelligent mind; and this delightful and instructive study is now placed in every one's power by the really beautiful maps published by Johnston in his Physical Atlas, a work which may be studied and consulted in all its details with profit by every dweller in the country.

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505. Many of the animals indigenous to this country, whether quadruped, bird, or insect, are found in their habits at one season to be injurious, and at another beneficial to the interests of the farmer. method is more effectual of knowing how to ascertain their injurious practices, or how to encourage their beneficial ones, than to acquire an intimate knowledge of their habits at all seasons. The weasel destroys the eggs and young birds of the poultry yard, but it also overcomes the rats and mice, whether in granary or stack, and these do no good at all to the farmer. The rook and hedge-birds devour grain at the ripening of the crops, but they destroy myriads of the insect tribe in the season of rearing their young. All insects are not injurious to the farmer; on the contrary, many are positively beneficial. The ladybird destroys multitudes of the aphides, which injure many useful plants and trees, while itself does no injury at any time. The song-birds cheer our hearts in spring; and the only way for the farmer of repaying them for their song, is to feed them generously during the severity of winter, and which if he do, he is quite entitled to protect his fruit from their depredations in autumn by the use of simple safeguards.

506. Entomology, or the study of insects, might be made to serve agriculture to a considerable extent. In this department of science, farmers might greatly assist the entomologist, by observing the minute, but varied and interesting, habits of insects. The difficulty of comprehending the true impulses of insects, as well as of identifying species in the different states of transformation, render the observations of farmers less exact than those of entomologists who have successfully studied the technicalties of the science. The field of observation in the insect creation being very wide, and there being comparatively

but few explorers in it, a large portion of a man's life would be occupied in merely observing species and their habits, and a much larger in forming general deductions from repeated observations. The result would be, were farmers to study entomology, that a long period must elapse ere the habits of even the most common destructive insects, and the marks of their identity, would become familiarised to them. In consequence of this obstacle to the study of entomology, the obligations of the farmer ought to be the greater to those entomologists who daily observe the habits of insects in the fields and woods, and simplify their individual characteristics; and at the same time devise plans to evade their extensive ravages, and recommend easy and effective means for their destruction. The English farmer, living in a climate congenial to the development of insect life, painfully experiences their destructive powers on crops and woods; and though the entomologists of England are ever vigilant and active, yet their efforts to overcome the tenacity of insect life, with a due regard to the safety of the plant, have hitherto proved but partially availing.

507. VETERINARY SCIENCE.-A more general diffusion of veterinary science has tended much to improve the treatment of live stock in the hands of farmers. Formerly stock used to be exposed to the changes of weather, and made to subsist on the smallest quantity of food; and the consequence was, that they were overtaken with fatal diseases, which annually swept them away in numbers. Veterinary science has explained to the farmer, that to expose any living animal to a depressing temperature, is to derange the functions of its vital organs; and to stint it at the same time of a due proportion of food, is to deprive it of the power to generate heat within itself, and to protect its body with a covering of flesh and fat against the coldness of the temperature. Veterinary science may now vie with the medical sciences in importance and refinement, and a large number of skilful veterinarians are now qualified to practise the art in every part of the empire.

508. In recommending farmers to acquire a competent knowledge of veterinary

science, it is not to be imagined that they should become veterinary surgeons. Let every class of persons adhere to their own profession. But doubtless a knowledge of veterinary science is of great use to the farmer, not in enabling him to administer to the diseased necessities of his live stock

for that requires more professional skill and experience than any farmer can attain, and is the proper province of the regularly bred veterinarian-but to enable him readily to detect a disease by its symptoms, in order to apply immediate checks against its progress, until he can communicate with and inform the veterinary surgeon of the nature of the complaint, whereupon to bring with him materials for treating it correctly on his arrival. The death of a single animal may be a serious loss to the farmer, and if, by his knowledge of the principles of the veterinary art, he can stay the progress of every disease, he may not only avert the loss, but prevent the animal being much affected by disease; and disease, though not proving fatal to animals, leaves injurious effects on the constitution for a long time thereafter

509. Epidemical diseases, such as the murrain and pleuro-pneumonia, have of late years ravaged the flocks and herds of many farmers; but the mode of evading or warding off their attacks in no respect differs from that of other diseases. Shelter and abundance of food at all times, and attention to premonitory symptoms of disease, are infalliable means of evasion and cure.

510. Comparative Anatomy.-Comparative anatomy explains the internal structure, and the functions of the bodies, of vertebrated animals-that is, of those animals provided with the high organisation of a back-bone, or spinal column. This science is best acquired along with the veterinary art, which particularly has regard to the organisation of all the inferior animals, and especially of the domesticated ones. At the same time, this species of anatomy is only clearly understood after the acquisition of a familiar acquaintance of the human frame. opportunities of learning human anatomy exist, that no difficulty need be experienced by any one who passes a little time in any town that forms the seat of a university;

So many

and possessing a general acquaintance of the human frame, a knowledge of the structure of the inferior animals, in all its varieties, will be easily acquired. A knowledge of anatomy may prove useful to the practical farmer, inasmuch as it explains to him the structure of the carcasses of the animals upon which he bestows so much care in rearing. Acquainted with the structure, functions, and seats of the most common diseases of the several parts which constitute the corporeal body, he will be the better able to apportion the food to the peculiar constitution of the animal; and also to anticipate any tendency to disease, by a previously acquired knowledge of premonitory symtoms.

511. These are the physical sciences whose principles seem most applicable to agriculture; and being so, they should be studied by every farmer who wishes to be considered an enlightened member of his profession. That farmers are quite competent to attain these sciences, may be gathered from the observations of Sir John Herschel:-"There is scarcely any well informed person who, if he has but the will, has not the power to add something essential to the general stock of knowledge, if he will only observe regularly and methodically some particular class of facts which may most excite his attention, or which his situation may best enable him to study with effect. To instance one subject which can only be effectually improved by the united observations of great numbers widely dispersed-Meteorology, one of the most complicated but important branches of science, is at the same time one in which any person who will attend to plain rules, and bestow the necessary degree of attention, may do effectual service." But in drawing conclusions, great caution is requisite, for, "In forming inductions, it will most commonly happen that we are led to our conclusions by the especial force of some two or three strongly impressive facts, rather than by affording the whole mass of cases a regular consideration; and hence the need of cautious verification. Indeed, so strong is this propensity of the human mind, that there is hardly a more common thing than to find persons ready to assign a cause for

every thing they see, and in so doing, to join things the most incongruous, by analogies the most fanciful. This being the case, it is evidently of great importance that these first ready impulses of the mind should be made on the contemplation of the cases most likely to lead to good inductions. The misfortune, however, is, in natural philosophy, that the choice does not rest with us. We must take the instances as nature presents them. Even if we are furnished with a list of them in tabular order, we must understand and compare them with each other, before we can tell which are the instances thus deservedly entitled to the highest consideration. And, after all, after much labour in vain, and groping in the dark, accident or casual observation will present a case which strikes us at once with a full insight into the subject, before we can even have time to determine to what class its prerogative belongs." *

ON THE INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION BEST SUITED TO AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS.

512. No course of elementary education is better taught than at the excellent parochial schools of Scotland. The sons of farmers and of peasants of Scotland have thus a favourable opportunity of acquiring the elements of a sound education, and they do not fail to avail themselves of it. There, also, a classical education, sufficiently extensive and profound for persons in ordinary life, may be obtained. But as to the acquirement of all the sciences enumerated above, it must be sought for in the universities, and some of them are taught in academies.

513. Four universities exist in Scotland. two in England, and one in Ireland, in any one of which is taught all, and more than all, the sciences I have enumerated.

514. There exist, besides, a great number of academies in many of the provincial towns in the kingdom, in which mathematics and natural philosophy are chiefly taught, together with practical mathematics, grammar, and book-keeping.

515. For the study of mathematics and natural philosophy, I prefer the academies to the colleges, because their course occupies twenty months, and two hours are devoted each day to each subject; whereas the college session extends only to six months, and devotes only one hour for five days in the week to one subject. The longer session, and the fuller teaching on each subject, and a smaller fee, are great advantages to students-great inducements for them to attend the academies; while the more fully mathematics and natural philosophy are taught, the more heartily are they appreciated by the student. Two sessions of twenty months, with a vacation of two months intervening between the sessions, might thus be profitably employed at an academy in learning mathematics, natural philosophy, geography, English grammar, and the theory of book-keeping.

516. Natural history and chemistry are best acquired at college, as they are not always taught, and never fully so, at the academies; and without the most ample experiments and illustrations, which cannot be expected to be afforded in provincial towns, these sciences cannot be profitably studied.

517. Many farmers, I dare say, will consider it beyond the reach of their means, and others beyond their station, to bestow on their sons so learned an education as that implied in the acquirement of the sciences enumerated. Such an idea is illfounded; because no farmer who can afford to support his sons at home, without working for their bare subsistence, but possesses the means of giving them such an education; and no farmer, who confessedly has wealth, should grudge to give his sons an education such as will fit them to adorn the profession they are to follow.

518. It cannot be denied that mathematics and natural philosophy are sciences which tend greatly to elevate the mind. Those farmers who have acquired them must be sensible of this tendency; and they must naturally desire their sons to partake in what they themselves enjoy. Those who are not acquainted with these sciences, on being made aware of their tendency, should feel it their duty to put it in the power of their sons to raise themselves in society,

and shed a lustre on their profession. The same sort of reasoning applies to a knowledge of natural history and chemistry. Neither the time nor expense of acquiring such an education should deter any farmer's son from attempting it, who desires to occupy a position above that of a farm steward; for without the education, his knowledge of farming is not superior to that of a steward. Besides these considerations, since a good education is the best legacy a parent can leave his child, it is actually better for the young farmer himself to bestow on him a superior education with part of the patrimony destined by his father to stock him a farm, than to plenish for him a larger farm, and stint his education. The larger farm would, probably, enable the half educated son to earn a livelihood more easily; but the well-educated one would be more than compensated by the possession of a cultivated intelligence, which would enable him to draw forth the capabilities of the soil, and make himself an infinitely superior member of society. Were industrious farmers as desirous to improve their sons' minds by superior education, as they too often are to amass fortunes for them, -a boon unprofitably used by uncultivated minds,-they would be regarded as wiser men. No really sensible farmer should hesitate to decide which course to take, when the intellectual improvement of his family is concerned. He should never permit considerations of mere pelf to overcome a sense of right and of duty. Rather than prevent his son raising himself in society, he should economise his own expenditure.

519. I shall show that the time occnpied in acquiring these sciences is not lost when compared with the advantages they bestow. Part of three years will suffice; but three years are no doubt regarded as an immense time for a young man to lose! So it would be were it really lost; and if it be lost, the blame should be imputed to the negligence of the student. But is the young farmer's time, who is for years constantly following his father's footsteps over the farm, and only engaged in superintending in his father's absence, not as much lost as it could possibly be in acquiring a scientific education at a little distance from home? Insomuch as the young man's time is of use to the farm, the two

cases are nearly on a par; and in as far as they affect himself, there is no question that science would benefit him the more, -no question that a superior education would enable him to learn the practice of his profession with much greater ease to himself. The question of education is thus narrowed to the consideration of the cost of keeping the son at home, following his father as idly as a shadow, or of sending him to college. In a pecuniary point of view, the difference is between maintenance at home, and that in a town, with the addition of fees; and that this difference is not great, I shall now show.

520. Part of three years, as I have said, would suffice;-the first year to be devoted to mathematics, the second to natural philosophy, and the third to natural history and chemistry; and along with these principal subjects, in the first two years practical mathematics, as surveying, &c., English grammar and composition, book-keeping, and a knowledge of cash transactions. The vacations would be spent at home, and not unprofitably in revising studies.

521. The cost of acquiring all these subjects at the several colleges and academies is not insurmountable, even to the limited purse of a small farmer. In any of the towns possessing an academy, the two sessions of twenty months would not exceed in board a guinea a-week, and in fees twelve guineas-say £100; and the short session of six months at college, at a guinea a-week, and fifteen guineas for fees, other £45-making in all, in twentysix months, say £150. This is a small sum compared with the advantages derived from it; and from this falls to be deducted the cost of keeping the son at home in idleness, which, even at ploughmen's usual wages of 10s. a-week, would amount to £54, so that his education would only cost about £100, which economy might reduce to a smaller sum; and, on the other hand, a larger should be given to make the student, if diligent, comfortable. am quite aware it may be remarked on this subject, that it applies only to the case of one son, whereas the farmer may have more to educate and maintain. But as I am only advocating the cause of the young farmer, by desiring his elevation in society; and as only one son can succeed

I

his father as a farmer, I hold I have made good the proposition I made.

522. Besides the sciences, the agricultural student has the opportunity in Edinburgh of attending the class of agriculture in the university, in which the professor explains the principles and describes the practice of the most approved systems of husbandry. This chair was endowed in 1790 by Sir William Pulteney, with a small salary, and placed under the joint patronage of the Judges of the Court of Session, the Senatus Academicus of the University, and the Magistrates and TownCouncil of the City of Edinburgh. The first professor, elected by the patrons to this chair in 1791, was the late Dr Coventry, whose name, at one time, in connexion with the agriculture of this country, stood prominent. He occupied the chair until his death in 1831. The present Professor Low succeeded Dr Coventry. He has rekindled the dying embers of the agricultural class, by lectures suited to the improved state of British agriculture, and by forming a museum of models of agricultural implements, and portraits of live stock, of the most extensive and valuable description. The funds which attained this object, were derived from the revenues under the management of the Board of Trustees for the encouragement of Arts and Manufactures in Scotland, which was instituted by the 15th Article of the Treaty of Union between Scotland and England. Professor Low, during his incumbency, has contributed, in his several publications, much valuable matter to the agricultural literature of the country.

523. Classes for the tuition of practical chemistry exist in the University of Edinburgh under Professor Gregory, and in that of Glasgow under Dr Robert D. Thomson; and, until the end of 1848, in the laboratory of the Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland in Edinburgh under the care of Professor John

ston.

524. The Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland was established in 1843 for five years certain, and now that that period is about to expire, it will cease to exist in a separate form in November 1848;