the one case your skill in raising a crop is almost rendered nugatory, and in the other your negligence in wasting space in the thinning out appears conspicuous. An amendment in both particulars is therefore requisite, and fortunately attainable; for, as a slight difference in either makes a great difference in the weight of a crop, your endeavour should be both to make the turnip heavy, and the desired distance between them invariable. For example, 5 lb. turnips, at 9 inches asunder, give a crop of 57 tons 12 cwt.; whereas the same weight of turnip at 11 inches apart, gives only a little more than 47 tons. Now, how easy is it for careless people to thin out the plants to 11 instead of 9 inches, and yet, by so doing, no less than 10 tons of turnips are sacrificed. Again, a difference of only 1 lb. on the turnip from 5 lb. to 4 lb.-at 9 inches asunder, makes a difference of 11 tons per acre. So that a difference of only 1 lb. in each turnip, and 2 inches in the distance between them, makes the united sacrifice of 21 tons per acre! Who will deny, after this, that minutiæ require the most careful attention in farming?

879. One occasionally sees in the newspapers statements of great crops of turnips; but when all particulars are not known, it is quite possible for great errors to be committed in making returns from any other mode of ascertaining the amount of a crop of turnips than by topping and tailing a whole field, and weighing every cart-load separately. For example. Suppose 1 yard is measured from a turnip along a drill, one yard will embrace 5 turnips of white and 4 of swedes: and, if the measurement is begun between two turnips, one yard will only embrace 4 turnips of white and 3 of Swedes, making, in the white a difference of 1 turnip in every 5, and in the swedes 1 in every 4; and if the weight of an acre is calculated on such data, the crop, in the case of the white, will be, and in that of the swedes beyond the truth. Again, if the yard be placed across two drills, their produce will be included within the yard, the distance between the drills being only 27 inches; but if the yard be placed across one drill only, then its produce alone will be included, as the yard will not reach to the drill on either side, and if the produce

of the whole field is calculated on such data, the result, in the latter mode of measurement, will just give half the amount of the other. These ways of weighing a crop, when thus plainly stated, appear ridiculous; but they are the causes of error into which country people, who are not aware of the effects of the powers of numbers when squared, are very liable to fall. The part, too, of the field measured, may give a very different result from the whole, or another part, for even on turnip-soil, how different are the size and number of turnips on a rising knoll and a hollow! The difference is not so obvious on looking upon the tops alone, as after the sheep have eaten off the leaves, and exposed the bulbs. The plan, also, of filling one cart-load or so and weighing it, and filling the other cart-loads to a similar extent, without weighing them, is a fallacions one, when the fact is known, as shown above, of turnips grown on the same field differing much in weight, and therefore a few more or less in a small cart-load, will make a considerable difference in the amount over a whole field. I question much whether any person ever weighed every cart-load of turnips as they were brought from a field, or even measured many places of the same field, to ascertain the number and weight of turnips in them; and unless some plan approaching to either be adopted, the results obtained will never prove satisfactory.

880. When the trouble of weighing every cart-load is wished to be avoided, the smallest and the largest and the middle-sized turnips should be pulled, topped, and tailed, and chosen from every part of the field where a difference of size and number is found to occur-such as in hollows, on knolls, on sloping and level ground, at the top and bottom of the fieldand each turnip weighed, and the tops weighed too, separately if desired, and then the average weight of the turnip may be relied on. A convenient machine for such a purpose is one of Salter's spring steel-yards, with a tin basin suspended from it by chains, in which a turnip may be placed and weighed with ease and celerity. Besides doing this, the distance from centre to centre of the tops of the turnips before they are pulled should be

measured, and noted down, and the average distance from turnip to turnip would then be ascertained. Having thus obtained correct data of the weight and number of turnips within the given limits of a field, the amount of the crop would be confidently ascertained. The average girth of turnips, though ascertained, is not an essential element in determining the weight of the crop. But the truest method is to weigh all the turnips in the field.

881. The history of the turnip, like that of other cultivated plants, is obscure. According to the name given to the swede in this country, it is a native of Sweden; the Italian name Naroni de Laponia intimates an origin in Lapland, and the French names Chou de Lapone, Chou de Suède, indicate an uncertain origin. Sir John Sinclair says, "I am informed that the swedes were first introduced into Scotland anno 1781-2, on the recommendation of Mr Knox, a native of East Lothian, who had settled at Gottenburg, whence he sent some of the seeds to Dr Hamilton."* There is no doubt the plant was first introduced into Scotland from Sweden, but I believe their introduction was prior to the date mentioned by Sir John Sinclair. The late Mr Airth, Mains of Dunn, Forfarshire, informed me that his father was the first farmer who cultivated swedes in Scotland, from seeds sent him by his eldest son, settled in Gottenburg, when my informant, the youngest son of a large family, was a boy of about 10 years of age. Whatever may be the date of its introduction, Mr Airth cultivated them in 1777; and the date is corroborated by the silence preserved by Mr Wight regarding its culture by Mr Airth's father when he undertook the survey of the state of husbandry in Scotland, in 1773, at the request of the Commissioners of the Annexed Estates, and he would not have failed to report so remarkable

a circumstance as the culture of so useful a plant, so that it was unknown prior to 1773. Mr Airth sowed the first portion of seed he received in

beds in the garden, and transplanted the plants in rows in the field, and succeeded in raising good crops for some years, before sowing the seed directly in the fields.

882. I have not been able to trace the history of the yellow turnip; but it is probable that it originated, as supposed by Professor Low, in a cross between a white and the swede ; and, as its name implies, the cross may have been effected in Aberdeenshire. Its origin must, therefore, have been subsequent to the introduction of the swede.

883. All the white varieties of field turnips

obtained at first the name of the "Norfolk

whites," from the circumstance of their having been first cultivated in that county, to any extent, by Lord Townshend, who, on coming home from being ambassador to the States-general, in 1730, paid great attention to their culture, and for which good service he obtained the appellation of "Turnip Townshend."

884. It is rather remarkable that no turnips should have been raised in this country in the fields until the end of the 17th century, when it was lauded as a field-root as long ago as Columella, and in his time even the Gauls fed their cattle on them in winter. The Romans were so well acquainted with turnips, that Pliny mentions having raised them 40 lb. weight. Turnips were cultivated in the gardens in England in the time of Henry VIII.§

885. Dale's hybrid originated in a few ounces of a hybridal seed being sent, in 1822 or 1823, by the late Mr Sherriff of Bastleridge, Berwickshire, to Mr Robert Dale, Liberton West Mains, near Edinburgh, who, by repeated selection and impregnation, brought it to what it is, a good yellow turnip, and now pretty extensively cultivated.

886. The Lawton hybrid originated about 12 years ago by Captain Wright of Lawtown, in Forfarshire, crossing the green-topped white with the green-topped swede, to harden the white, which object proved successful; but its culture has not been pushed. By sowing the swede beside the white Lawtown, the latter has been converted into a yellow turnip, possessing the properties of the swede; and were the cross still farther prosecuted, I have no doubt that a distinct variety of the swede would be obtained.

notice, about 8 years ago, by Mr Laing, Duddo, 887. A variety of swedes was brought into Northumberland, who found it amongst his ordielegant form of leaf, which is much notched near nary swedes, and observed it by its remarkably its base. It is now in use, and possesses the valuable property of resisting the influence of vegetation for at least a fortnight longer than the common varieties, as I had a favourable opportunity of observing in Berwickshire late in spring 1841, and on this account may be stored and kept in a fresh state to a very late period of the season.

888. Like all plants, the turnip, when consumed by fire, leaves an ash containing a variety of inorganic substances. The composition of the ash of the bulb is thus afforded by Boussingault and Muspratt :

890. In the beginning of 1848, it was proposed by some farmer in the county of Wigtown, to convert the Swedish turnip into a sort of meal, not so much for the use of man as food for stock. If it were possible to convert the bulb into a meal that could be preserved over years, the superfluity of one year might assist the deficiency of another; which would constitute desirable economy, as the turnip crop varies in weight to the extent of 50 per cent, according to the nature of the season.

891. The turnips would be converted into meal by being washed, and their juice then squeezed out by means of rollers; and on the squeezed fibre being dried in a kiln, would be easily ground by millstones into meal. The liquid portion could be evaporated, and its solid matter mixed with the meal.

892. A portion of turnip meal, thus prepared, was sent by Mr James Caird, Baldoon, to Professor Johnston for analysis, and was found to contain 22.82 per cent of water, and when burned, afforded 5:53 per cent of ash. When burned for nitrogen, it gave 13.68 per cent of protein compounds in the undried, or 17.72 per cent in the dried state. Its composition was this:

Protein compounds

Gum

Natural state. 13.68 4.14

Sugar

48.72

Oil

1.11

Fibre and pectin

8-10

Water

22.82

Ash

4.27

102-84

Dried at 212° 17.72 5.36 59.23 1.44 10.49

5.53

99.77

It contains too much water to keep a length of time, a very large proportion of sugar, and the protein compounds are equally great. It is, therefore, quite suited for feeding stock.+

893. The cabbage is considered good food for cows giving milk. The varieties of cabbage most suited for field culture are the Drum-head (Brassica oleracea, capitata depressa,) and the great round Scotch or white Strasburg, from which the German sour-krout is chiefly made (Brassica oleracea, capitata spherica alba of De Candolle.) Of these two the drum-head is the most productive, and the Scotch stands the winter best. The taste of milk is less tainted by the cabbage than turnips, and I believe more milk may be derived from it; though a decayed leaf or two and milk a strong disagreeable taste. in a head of cabbage will impart both to butter "This," says Sinclair, "I have long had an opportunity of proving." If planted in such drills as are commonly made for turnips, cabbages require good soil, and placed 18 inches asunder at least, which will give 12,907 plants to the acre, and, at 24 inches 9,680 plants; and if they at all attain to the weight that cabbages sometimes do, that is from 18 lb. to 23 lb. each, the lowest number, 18, will give a crop of 78 tons; but the usual crop is from 35 to 40 tons per acre. Their uses are to feed milk cows, to fatten oxen, and sheep are very fond of them. It is questionable how far their culture should be preferred to turnips, excepting on soil too strong for these, and as they require a large quantity of manure, they are not an economical crop in Scotland. I have no personal experience of the cabbage as a food for milk cows or feeding cattle, but know them to be much relished by ewes at the season of lambing.

894. The fresh leaves of the cabbage contain from 90 to 92 per cent of water. The dry leaf, when burned, leaves from 18 to 26 per cent of ash; so that a crop of 20 tons of cabbage, carry off from the soil more than one-half more of mineral matter than 20 tons of turnips-the quantity being 900 lb. These 900 lb. consist 105 lb.

green sorts. It is a native of Germany, where it is much cultivated, as also in the Low Countries and the north of France, where it is chiefly given to milk cows, for which it is well adapted, on account of its possessing little of that acridity found in the turnip to affect butter and milk. It is taken up before the frost sets in, and stored, like potatoes or turnips, for winter use. Its habits and produce are similar to the Swedish turnip, resembling it in the swollen bulb at the top of the stem when divested of leaves. Hares are so fond of it, that, on farms where they abound, its culture is found to be impracticable. Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt first introduced it into England from Germany.* It was successfully raised on the poor soil of Bagshot Heath, by Mr Hewitt Davis, in the dry summer of 1847, without purchased manure. He gave it to cows in milk, and ewes nursing early lamb, and both kinds of stock throve well upon it. Its solid matter varies from 12 to 22 per cent, and contains nearly 3 per cent of nutritive matter.

896. Although the parsnip (Pastinacex sativa edulis of De Candolle) is too tender a root for general cultivation in this country, it deserves notice on account of its fattening properties, as well as the good milk it yields. According to Colonel Le Couteur the weight of a good crop varies from 13 to 27 tons per acre; the latter quantity being sufficient to support 12 Jersey cows for six months, with a mixture of mangold wurtzel or turnips. The parsnip yields a heavier crop in Jersey than the Altringham carrot in the ratio of 840 261; but the white Belgian carrot was heavier than the parsnip in the ratio of 524: 318. As parsnips contain 6 per cent more of mucilage than carrots, the Colonel conceives that the difference is sufficient to account for the superior fattening as well as butyraceous quality of the parsnip. "In the fattening of cattle," says Don, "the parsnip is found equal, if not superior, to the carrot, performing the business with as much expedition, and affording meat of exquisite flavour, and a highly juicy quality. The animals eat it with much greediness. It is reckoned that 30 perches, where the crop is good, will be sufficient to fatten an ox 3 or 4 years old, when perfectly lean, in the course of 3 months. They are given in the proportion of about 30 lb. weight morning, noon, and night, the large ones being split in 3 or 4 pieces, and a little hay supplied in the intervals of those periods. And when given to milk cows with a little hay, in the winter season, the butter is found to be of as fine a colour and excellent a flavour, as when feeding in the best pastures. Indeed, the result of experiment has shown, that not only in neat cattle, but in the fattening of hogs and poultry, the animals become fat much sooner, and are more healthy, than when fed with any other root or vegetable; and that, besides, the meat is more

sweet and delicious. The parsnip-leaves being more bulky than those of carrots, may be mown off before taking up the roots, and given to cows, oxen, or horses, by whom they will be greedily eaten."+

897. The carrot is raised in the field in several parts of the country, especially since the failure of the potato; and of the cultivated varieties of the carrot, the white Belgian bids fair to supersede all others in the field. In a comparative experiment made by Mr Annesley, Fern Hill, Tockington, in 1842, between the white Belgian and Altringham carrots, he obtained from 25 tons to 29 tons 8 cwt. of the former, to from 19 tons to 21 tons 8 cwt. of the latter, with the same kinds and quantities of manure; while in the weight of the tops the difference was not nearly so great, the top of the Altringham being from 7 tons 10 cwt. to 8 tons 4 cwt. and of the Belgian from 8 tons 11 cwt. to 9 tons 14 cwt per acre. Both these crops had an excellent chance to be good, the land in 1840 having been in potatoes, and in 1841 in beans. The seed was laid in on the 9th April at the rate of 8 lb. per acre; and the white carrots were pulled on the 4th November, the red on the 21st. The soil for both was a clayey loam, one foot in depth, resting on a stiff clay.§

898. The nutritive matter contained in a crop of 25 tons, or 56,000 lb. per acre of carrots, consist of husk or woody fibre 1680 lb.; of starch, sugar, &c. 5600 lb.; of gluten, &c. 840.; of oil or fat, 200 lb.; and of saline matter, 800 lb.||

899. Sir Charles Burrell mentions that, in consequence of giving his horses and cattle white carrots, the great saving in the use of hay is remarkable; having formerly 50 loads of hay in reserve at the end of the season, he has now 400 loads. Less hay may therefore be made in future, or more sold.¶

900. The quantity of nutritive matter afforded by a crop of mangold wurtzel of 20 tons, or 45,000 lb. per acre, consists of 900 lb. of husk or woody fibre; 4950 lb. of starch, sugar, &c.; 900 lb. of gluten, &c.; and of saline matter 450 lb. No oil or fat has yet been detected in an appreciable quantity.**

ON THE FEEDING OF SHEEP ON TURNIPS IN WINTER.

901. Room having been prepared on the turnip land for the sheep to be fattened upon turnips, by removing the half of the crop in the manner described above, fig. 31, and having selected that part of the field