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1293. "The quantities of oil given above," Mr Norton observes, "are large, but I think correct. The earlier analyses of oats give from three to four-tenths of a per cent of oil. Both Boussingault and Johnston, however, have recently found from 6 to 8 per cent. This oil is of a beautiful pale yellow colour, and its smell may be perceived on heating oatmeal cakes. The fattening qualities of the oat must be very great. The maize or Indian corn is celebrated for fattening animals, and Dumas gives only 9 per cent as its maximum of fatty matters. Boussingault gives 7 per cent as the average; while Liebig has denied that it contains more than 5 per cent. If we take 7 per cent as the average, the meal of the oat, so far as the oil is concerned, should nearly equal that of the Indian corn."

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Potash
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1300. The proportion of the ash of the pea and bean I have already given (462) and the composition of that of the field-bean and fieldpea is as follows:

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8.69 9.98
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0.98 3.70

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66

"In every part of the plant but the grain," ob-
serves Mr Norton, 'we have found sulphuric
acid in the watery solution of the ash; in the
grain it seems to give way to phosphoric acid.
In the only instance in which sulphuric acid was
present, the grain was from a poor crop, grown
on an exhausted soil; and it is possible that the
sulphuric acid may have been present only be-
cause the crop found it impossible to obtain a
full supply of phosphoric acid. The large quan-
tity of phosphoric acid is remarkable; in nearly
every case it constitutes almost or quite one
half of the ash. It is easy, therefore, to see how
the addition of bones or guano should benefit the
oat crop.
Silica is very small in quantity in the
grain, compared with that in other parts of the
plant."*

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Chlorine

Silica

Chloride of sodium
(common salt)

98.93

It will be observed from these analyses that those leguminous grains contain a very large proportion of the protein compounds, and are therefore eminently useful in supplying the waste of muscular matter.+

1301. Indian Corn.-This grain is very nourishing to every kind of stock. It is raised in very large quantities in America, and is there used both by man and beast. In southern Germany, the horses are chiefly supported upon it, the grain being simply steeped in water for several hours before being used. In Italy, cakes are made of its flour, which are much relished when new baked, but become flinty and hard on being kept. The flour, having a somewhat chalky flavour, will not likely be much relished in this country as a part of the food of the people; but the grain seems well adapted for the fattening of all the domesticated animals, especially poultry.

* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for July 1846, p. 346-53. + Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, 2d edition, p. 377, 895, 928.

1302. The nutritive matter afforded by an acre of this grain, producing 30 bushels, or 1800 lbs., is as follows:-of husk or woody fibre, 100 lbs.; of starch, sugar, &c., 1260 lbs.; of gluten, &c., 216 lbs. ; of oil or fat, from 90 lbs. to 107 lbs.; and of saline matter, 27 lbs. The most remarkable result in these particulars is the large quantity of fat contained by this grain.

1303. Its composition when dried, according to Payen, is this:

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1305. Warnes' Compound. Mr Warnes, Trimingham, in Norfolk, recommends a composition for feeding both sheep and cattle, consisting of linseed and barley, which he says is much superior in nutrition to the best oil-cake; and to this composition he has given the name of Compound.

1306. Compound for Sheep.-The directions he gives for making the compound for sheep are these: Let a quantity of linseed be reduced to a fine meal, and barley flattened into the thickness of a wafer by means of a crushing-mill with smooth rollers. Put 168 lbs. of water into an iron boiler, and as soon as it boils, not before, stir in 21 lbs. of linseed meal, and let the water again boil, which it may do in about 5 minutes. Then let 63 lbs. of crushed barley be sprinkled by hand by one person upon the boiling mucilage, while another person rapidly stirs the mass, cramming in the barley. After the water, linseed, and barley, have entirely incorporated, which will not occupy above 10 minutes, put the lid upon the boiler, and throw the furnace-door open; and should the fire be strong, rake it out, when the mass will continue to simmer, until the barley shall have absorbed all the linseed

mucilage. When this has been accomplished, the barley will have resumed nearly its original shape, and may be compared to small oil-cakes, which, when cold, will be devoured by sheep with avidity. After a little practice, the eye will be a sufficient guide as to the proportions of the materials, without the trouble of weighing them. The compound is then put into tubs out of the boiler, and pressed down with a rammer to exclude the air, and prevent rancidity. If properly made, the compound ought to be like clay when made into bricks, in which state it will keep a long time. It will be seen that these proportions consist of 3 parts of barley to 1 of linseed, and of 2 parts of water to 1 of barley and linseed included. Also, that the weight of the whole is 18 stones when put into the boiler, but, after it has been made into compound and becomes cold, it will be found in general reduced to something less than 15 stones.

1307. Compound for Oxen.-In making the compound for oxen, the same process as to the cookery is followed, but the barley should be ground into fine meal, the water reduced to 150 lbs., and the fire extinguished, the meal becoming sufficiently cooked by immersion in the hot water and mucilage: the above quantity of 15 stones will afford 1 bullock for a fortnight 1 stone per day, containing 1 lb. of linseed.

1308. The compound for cattle may be formed into cakes, on being put into moulds with a trowel, while in a hot state, the mould having no bottom, and resting on a board, upon which the cakes are cooled. When cold, the cakes may be cut into pieces like bread, and given to the cattle, but Mr Warnes considers this a troublesome, expensive, and unnecessary proceeding.

1309. The linseed mucilage may be made into a compound with other materials than barley or grain of any kind, the compound with pease and bean meals being a very nutritious mixture. The mixture with turnips, carrots, and mangoldwurtzel, is effected in this way: Let the roots be washed and sliced, and boiled in the boiler with a small quantity of water : when sufficiently boiled, some of the roots are put into a tub with a little linseed meal, and the mass is beaten with a rammer, while another person turns it over until it becomes uniform. In this way one portion after another is prepared. Cut hay or straw and fine chaff may be prepared in the same manner with the mucilage. For example, 1 peck of fine linseed meal is stirred in 20 gallons of boiling water, and in about 10 minutes the mucilage is ready to be poured over 2 bushels of cut hay in a trough at a time, until the mucilage is exhausted; and its absorption by the hay is promoted by beating with a rammer, and on being pressed down.

1310. This quantity of compound will serve 21 scores of sheep for a day, the peck of linseed costing 1s. 9d., or 1d. per score, including the trouble of crushing and boiling it. It is not

* Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 892 and 928.

easy to determine the quantity of this which an ox may require, so much depending on the size and condition of the animal; but 1 lb. of linseed meal per day mixed in mucilage, with 2 or 3 skeps of cut straw or hay, along with boiled Swedish turnips, according to experience, will advance the condition of an ox.

1311. The compound may be formed with any kind of farm-produce, provided it contains a proper quantity of the linseed. If barley, beans, or pease be used, they must first be ground into meal; if grass, clover, hay, straw, or pea and bean haulm be used, they must first be cut into chaff; if turnips, carrots, mangold-wurtzel, cabbages, or potatoes, are used, they must first be boiled or steamed ; after which all or any of the above materials may be formed into the compound, by admixture of the linseed boiled in water. The compounds are essentially of three kinds the corn and pulse compound, the root compound, and the grass and chaff compound. These may all run into and mingle with each other, according to circumstances, but they constitute the three leading distinctions, and in one or other of which all the cattle-compounds may be classed-linseed being, however, the chief ingredient for fattening.

1312. The apparatus required for the making of compounds according to Mr Warnes' method, is, a linseed crusher, a barley mill and bruiser, a boiler, one or two half-hogsheads, and two or three pails, with a ladle, stirrer, and rammer.*

1313. Corn-bruiser.-This machine is shown in perspective in fig. 98. It is constructed almost entirely of cast-iron, except the hopper and discharging-spout; but its frame or standard may with propriety be formed of hardwood, when circumstances render the adoption of that material desirable. In the figure, a aa is the frame-work, consisting of two separate sides connected by two stretcher-bolts. A case, bb, formed of cast-iron plates, is bolted upon the projecting ears at the top of the frame, and contains the bruising cylinders. The cylinders are of castiron or of steel, and have an axle of malleable iron passing through them. The spur-wheels c and d are fitted upon the axle of the cylinders. The cylinder corresponding to d is perfectly smooth, while that of c is grooved into sharp edges. The grooves lie obliquely on the face of the cylinder. The winch-handle e is attached to the axle of the roller c, whose bearings are permanent, while those of d are movable, being formed in separate plates, and fitted to slide to a small extent in a seat, for the adjustment of the cylinder to any desired grist. This adjustment is effected by means of the screws f, which act upon the slidingplates of the bearings: g is one of the bearings of a feeding-roller, placed also within the case; it is turned by means of a toothed wheel fitted upon the further end of its axle, and which is driven by another wheel on the axle of the cylinder d. The fly-wheel h is fitted upon the axle of the cylinder c; i is the feeding-hopper,

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the grooved one being the fastest, it produces a cutting as well as a bruising action, which renders its effects on the grain more perfect than simple pressure. It can be worked by one man, who will bruise 4 bushels of oats in an hour. The price of the machine is £6, 10s.

1314. Plain Corn-bruiser for power.- When corn is desired to be merely flattened and not reduced to the mealy state, it is necessary to use plain rollers, and these cannot be worked effectually but by power. Fig. 99 is an elevation of such a machine. It is a very efficient one, and adapted to power. In the figure, a a is one of the side-frames of cast-iron, which are connected together by stretcher-bolts, and the frame so formed is bolted to a floor through the palms at cc. On the top bar of the frames there are two strong snugs cast sufficient to resist the pres

* Warnes On the Cultication of Flax, 2d edition, p. 134-266.

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AN ELEVATION OF THE POWER CORN-BRUISER.

shaft the driving-pulley i, which, by means of a belt ss from any shaft of a thrashing-machine, or other power having a proper velocity, puts the rollers in motion. The rollers are enclosed in a square wooden case kk, in the cover of which a narrow hopper-shaped opening is formed, to direct the grain between the rollers. A hopper m, for receiving the grain, is supported on the light wooden frame-work nn, which also supports the feeding-shoe o, jointed to the frame at p, and suspended by the strap q, which last is adjustable by a screw at q, to regulate the quantity of feed. After passing the rollers, the grain is received into a spout, which either delivers it on the same floor, or through a close spout in the floor below. The price of this machine, as manufactured by Mr Slight, Edinburgh, is £10.

1315. I have now shown you how cattle are treated and fed on turnips in winter, and enumerated a variety of ingredients which are

employed separately, or in conjunction with turnips, to fatten cattle. I shall now relate some experiments showing the comparative value in feeding of some of these ingredients and turnips, and then exhibit the comparative advantages of treating cattle in winter in various ways.

1316. The late Earl Spencer made an experiment to ascertain the comparative values of mangold-wurtzel and Swedish turnips in feeding cattle. He selected two steers equally well bred, rising 2-years old, and on the 24th of December 1825, he put one on Swedish turnips, and the other on mangold-wurtzel. Their weights were determined by measurement, both being 4 feet 10 inches in length by 6 feet 5 inches in girth, weighing 668 lbs. each. On the 23d January 1826, one had consumed 1624 lbs. of Swedish turnips, giving an increase of weight to 703 lbs. or absolutely an increase of 35 lbs., which was at the rate of 484 lbs. for every ton of turnips consumed. The other consumed 1848 lbs. of mangoldwurtzel, giving a weight of 721 lbs., or absolutely 53 lbs., or at the rate of 65 lbs. for every ton of the root.

1317. As this difference may have arisen from a greater propensity to fatten, the food was exchanged, and on the 20th February No. 1 had consumed 1884 lbs. of mangold-wurtzel, giving an increase to 734 lbs., having absolutely increased in weight 31 lbs., or at the rate of 36 lbs. for every ton of the root. No. 2 had consumed 1880 lbs. of Swedish turnips, making him weigh 734 lbs., or making an increase of 13 lbs., or at the rate of 154 lbs. to every ton of turnips consumed.

1318. They were then both put on mangoldwurtzel, dividing the food equally between them. On the 19th March they had each consumed 1792 lbs., and No. 1 weighed 784 lbs., giving an increase of 50 lbs., and No. 2 weighed 765 lbs., with an increase of 31 lbs.

1319. It would appear that the propensity to feed in No. 1 was greater than No. 2, in the proportion of 50 to 31; but notwithstanding this, in the first month, when No. 1 was upon Swedish turnips, and No. 2 upon mangold-wurtzel, No. 2 beat No. 1 in the proportion stated above, of 65 to 48 No. 2 in the first month, when feeding on mangold-wurtzel, increased in girth 3 inches, and in the next month, when fed upon Swedish turnips, did not increase in girth at all, indicating a stoppage of growth. "It appears," observes his lordship, 66 as if there could be no great inaccuracy in estimating the relative weight of the animals, as, soon after the experiment was concluded, I sold No. 1 to a butcher in the county for £24, 3s., and No. 2 at Smithfield for £24."

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1320. It would appear, from experiments made by the late Mr Moubray of Cambus, Clackmannanshire, that cattle may be fed on turnips and hay as cheaply as on turnips and straw, because, when straw is given, more turnips are consumed,

* Journal of the Agricultural Society of England, vol. ii. p. 297.

and, therefore, when turnips are scarce, hay may be used with advantage.

1321. It would also appear, from other experiments made by him, that cattle may be fed cheaper on distillery draff and dreg than on turnips and straw; but the distillery refuse requires more time to bring cattle to the same condition, which in some circumstances may be an inconvenience.*

1322. Linseed oil has been successfully employed by Mr Curtis of West Rudham, in Norfolk, to feed cattle. His mode of using the oil is this: First ascertain how much cut straw the oxen intended to be fed will consume a-week, then sprinkle the oil on the cut straw, layer upon layer, at the rate of 1 gallon per week per ox. The mixture, on being turned over frequently, is kept 2 days before being used, when a slight fermentation takes place, and then the oil will scarcely be discerned, having been entirely absorbed by the straw, which should, of course, be the best oat straw. This mixture, when compared with oil-cake, has stood its ground.

1323. Linseed of fine quality weighs 52 lbs. per bushel, and yields from 11 to 12 gallons of oil per quarter, weighing 94 lbs. per gallon, or about 25 per cent of its weight. The price of linseed oil is about 34s. per cwt. of 12 gallons, which makes the feeding of an ox only cost 2s. 10d. per week.t

1324. Mr Curtis has fed cattle for upwards of 20 years upon what he calls green malt, which consists of steeping light barley " for 48 hours in soft water, when the water is let off, and the barley is thrown into a round heap, in a conical form, till it gets warm and begins to sprout freely. It is then spread out and turned over repeatedly as it grows. The only care required is, that the sprout or future blade does not get cut off, as the malt will then loose much of its nutritious quality." He finds this substance, which costs with its labour 1s. a stone, preferable to oats at 10d. in their natural state. It is questionable, however, that, if this mode of treating barley were generally adopted by feeders of stock, they would not become amenable to the Excise laws. The experiment might be dangerous; and every question with the Excise, as is well understood, invariably leaves its opponent the loser.

1325. Mr Brodie, Abbey Mains, East Lothian, made an experiment on feeding cattle, from October 1836 to June 1837, on different kinds of food. There were 4 lots of cattle, consisting of 5 each. The first lot was fed on turnips and straw, which, being the usual treatment, formed the standard of comparison. The second lot had half the weight of turnips and 30 lbs. of oil-cake a-day. A third lot was fed on the last quantity of turnips and bean-meal and bruised oats. And the fourth had distillery grains and ground beans.

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Upon the whole," concludes Mr Brodie," it is evident, by these experiments, that feeding with turnips as an auxiliary has been the most advantageous mode of using turnips, as, by the above statement, it is apparent that if the cattle of the first lot had only been allowed half the quantity of turnips which they consumed, and had got oil-cake in lieu of the other half, as was given to the second lot, the expense of their keep would have been lessened £4, 13s., and from superior quality of beef, their value would have been increased £10, making together £14, 13."§

1326. Some remarks occur to me on the progress of this experiment,-that if the cattle had been sold on the 7th April 1837, when they were adjudged by competent farmers, they would not have repaid the feeder his expenses, as the price of lot first, with the cost of feeding to that time, amounted to £95, 1s. 8d., and they were only valued at £82; lot second cost £90, 12s., and were valued at £88, 10s.; lot third £93, 4s., and valued at £77; and lot fourth £97, 4s. 5d., and their value was only £81, 10s. And this is almost always the result of disposing of cattle before the end of the feeding season, because it is only after they attain high condition that the quality of the meat improves so rapidly as to enhance its value so as to leave a profit. As with sheep so with cattle, the inside is first filled up before the outside indicates condition. This result should be a useful hint to you to weigh well every consideration before disposing of your fattening beasts in the middle of the feeding + Ibid. p. 587.

* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv., p. 61.
+ Ibid., p. 588.
§ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. 331.

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