in length, 4 feet 6 inches in breadth, and the height about 3 feet 6 inches. The furnace is built with a circulating flue, passing first to the further end of the boiler, then turning to right or left, according as the chimney may be situated, returns to the front of the boiler, and terminates in the chimney on the side opposite to the first turning. The flues should not be less in width at the upper part than one-fourth the diameter of the boiler; and their height will be about one-third the diameter. The steam-pipe is attached to the boiler at its crown, takes a swan-neck bend downwards to within 12 inches of the floor at g, and terminates at p; it is furnished with as many branch nozzles as there are intended to be steaming-vessels. The steam

pipe may be either cast-iron or lead, and 2 inches diameter in the bore. The receptacles or steaming-vessels h h are usually casks of from 50 to 100 gallons contents. They are mounted with 2 iron gudgeons or pivots, placed a little above mid-height; they are, besides, furnished with a false bottom, supported about 3 inches above the true one; the former being perforated with a plentiful number of holes, to pass the steam which is introduced between the two bottoms. The connexion between the steam-pipe and the receptacle may be either by a stop-cock and coupling-screw-which is the most perfect connexion or it may be by the simple insertion of the one nozzle within the other, in the form of a spigot and faucet. In this latter case, the nozzle that leads from the steam-pipe is stopped with a wooden plug, when the receptacle is disengaged. Besides the steam-pipe, the boiler is furnished with a pipe i, placed in connexion with a cistern of water k, the pipe entering into it by the bottom, and its orifice closed by a valve opening upward, the lower extremity of the pipe passing within the boiler to within 3 inches of its bottom. A slender rod / passes also into the boiler through a small stuffing-box; and to its lower end, within the boiler, is appended a float, which rests upon the surface of the water within the boiler. The upper end of this rod is jointed to a small lever, which has its fulcrum supported on the edge of the cistern a little above k; the opposite end of the lever being jointed to a similar but shorter rod, rising from the valve in the bottom of the cistern. This forms the feeding apparatus of the boiler, and is so adjusted by weights, that when the water in the boiler is at a proper height, the float is buoyed up so as to shut the valve in the cistern, preventing any further supply of water to pass into the boiler, until, by evaporation, the surface of the water has fallen so far as to leave the float unsupported, to such extent as to form a counterpoise to the valve, which will then open, and admit water to descend into the boiler, until it has again elevated the float to that extent that will shut the valve in the cistern. By this arrangement, it will be perceived that the water in the boiler will be kept nearly at a uniform height; but to accomplish all this, the cistern must be placed at a certain fixed height above the water in the boiler, and this height is regulated by the laws which govern the expansive power of steam. This law, without going into its mathematical

VOL. I.

details, may be stated in round numbers as follows:-That the height of the surface of the water in the cistern must be raised above the surface of that in the boiler, 3 feet for every pound-weight of pressure that the steam will exert on a square inch of surface in the boiler. Thus, if it is estimated to work with steam of 1 lb. on the inch, the cistern must be raised 3 feet; if 2 inches, 6 feet; 3 inches, 9 feet; and so on. If the steam is by any chance raised higher than the height of the cistern provides for, the whole of the water in the boiler may be forced up through the pipe into the cistern, or until the lower orifice of the pipe, within the boiler, is exposed to the steam, which will then also be ejected through the pipe; and the boiler may be left dry. Such an accident, however, cannot occur to the extent here described, if the feeding apparatus is in proper working order; and its occurrence to any extent is sufficiently guarded against by a safety-valve.

1457. The safety-valve of the steam-boiler is usually a conical metal valve, and always opening outward; it ought always to be of a diameter large in proportion to the size of boiler and steam-pipe, so as to insure the free egress of any rapid generation of steam. For a boiler of the size under consideration it should be 2 inches in diameter on its under surface-that being the surface acted upon-this gives an area of fully 3 square inches; and if loaded directly, or without the intervention of a lever, for steam of a pressure of 1 lb. on the inch, it will require 3 lbs.; if 2 lbs. on the inch, 6 lbs.; if 3 lbs. on the inch, 9 lbs., and so on. With these adjustments, the steam, should it rise above the proposed pressure, will, instead of forcing the water through the feed-pipe, raise the safety-valve, and escape into the atmosphere until the pressure is reduced to the intended equilibrium.

1458. Another precautionary measure in the use of the steam-boiler is the gauge-cock, of which there are usually two, but sometimes one, a two-way cock; they are the common stopcock, with a lengthened tail passing downward, the one having its tail terminating about 1 inch below the proper water-level in the boiler, the other terminating 1 inch above that level, which allows a range of 3 inches for the surface of the water to rise or fall. The first, or watercock, when opened, will throw out water by the pressure of the steam upon its surface, until the surface has sunk 1 inch below its proper level, when steam will be discharged, thus indicating the water in the boiler to be too low, and that measures should be taken to increase the supply. When the second, or steam-cock is opened, it will always discharge steam alone, unless the water shall have risen so high as to come above its orifice, in which case the cock will discharge water, indicating a too large supply of water to the boiler, and that it should be reduced; for this purpose the feed-pipe i is provided with a stopcock m, whereby the admission of water can be entirely prevented at the pleasure of the attendant.

1459. The foregoing description refers to a

X

steaming apparatus of the best description, and implies that the water-cistern can be supplied either from a fountain-head, or that water can be pumped up to the cistern. But there may be cases where neither of these are easily attainable. Under such circumstances the feed-pipe may rise to the height of 4 or 44 feet, and be surmounted by a funnel, and under it a stop-cock. In this case, also, a float with a wire stem, rising through a stuffing-box on the top of the boiler, must be employed-the stem may rise a few inches above the stuffing-box, in front of a graduated scalehaving the zero in its middle point. When the water is at the proper height in the boiler, the top of the stem should point at zero, and any rise or fall in the water will be indicated, accordingly, by the position of the stem. To supply a boiler mounted after this fashion, the first thing to be attended to, before setting the fire, is to fill up the boiler, through the funnel, to the proper level, which will be indicated by the float pointing to zero; but it should be raised, in this case, two or three inches higher. In this stage the gauge-cocks are non-effective; but when the steam has been got up, they, as well as the float, must be consulted frequently; and should the water, by evaporation, fall so low as 3 inches below zero, a supply must be introduced through the funnel. To effect a supply, in these circumstances, the steam must be allowed to fall rather low; and the funnel being filled, and the stopcock opened, the water in the former will sink down through the tube, provided the steam be sufficiently low to admit its entrance; but the first portion of water that can be thus thrown in will go far to effect this, by sinking the temperature. The sinking of the temperature by the addition of a large quantity of cold water, is the objection to this mode of feeding; but this is obviated to some extent from the circumstance that, unless the steaming receptacles are large or numerous, the first charge of water will generally serve to cook the mess, when a fresh charge can be put in for the next.

1460. In using this steaming apparatus, it has been noticed that the casks are furnished with gudgeons, which play in the posts n n; these are kept in position by the collar-beam o to which they are attached-the casks being at liberty to be tilted upon these gudgeons. They are charged when in the upright position, and the connexion being formed with the steam-pipe, as described, they are covered at top with a close lid or a thick cloth, and the process goes on. When the substances are sufficiently cooked, the couplings rr are disengaged, the upper part of the cask is swung forward, and their contents discharged into a trough, which is brought in front of them for that purpose.

1461. The connexions with the steam-pipe are sometimes, for cheapness, formed by a sliding tube of copper or brass, about 4 inches in length, which, after the nozzle of the cask and that projecting from the steam-pipe are brought directly opposite to each other, is slid over the junction,

*

and as a moderate degree of tightness only is requisite in such joints, a strip of sacking wrapped round the ends of the slider is found sufficient. On breaking the connexion, and opening the exit nozzles, the steam will of course flow out, but this is checked by a wooden plug, or even a potato or slice of turnip, thrust into the orifice, may be sufficient. It is advisable, however, that a main stop-cock should be placed in the steam-pipe any where between the boiler and the first receptacle.

1462. The most perfect mode of connexion between the steam-pipe and the receptacles is a stop-cock and coupling-screw. These should be of 1 inch bore: they are more certain in their effect, and more convenient in their application, though attended with more expense in the first cost of the apparatus. In this case no maincock is required. The extremity of the steampipe should, in all cases, be closed by a small stop-cock, for the purpose of draining off any water that may collect in the pipe from condensation. A precaution to the same effect is requisite, in the bottom of each cask, to draw off the water that condenses abundantly in it; or a few small perforations in the bottom will effect the purpose.

1463. It must be remarked, in regard to steaming, that where grain of any kind is given in food in a cooked state, that dry grain cannot be cooked, or at least boiled to softness in dry steam, the only effect produced being a species of parching; and if steam of high temperature is employed, the parching is increased nearly to carbonisation. If it is wished, therefore, to boil grain by steam, it must be done by one of the two following methods. The grain must either be soaked in water for a few hours, and then exposed to the direct action of the steam in the receptacle or it may be put into the receptacle with as much water as will cover it-and then, by attaching the receptacle to the steam-pipe by the coupling stop-cock, or in the absence of stop-cocks, by passing a bent leaden pipe from the steam-pipe over the upper edge of the receptacle, and descending again inside-to the space between the false and the true bottomsthe steam discharged thus, by either method, will shortly raise the temperature of the water to the boiling point, and produce the desired effect.*

1464. The time required to prepare food in this way varies considerably, according to the state of the apparatus, and the principle of its construction. With the apparatus just described, potatoes can be steamed in casks of from 32 to 50 gallons contents, in 30 to 45 minutes. In casks extending to 80 gallons, an hour or more may be required. Turnips require considerably longer time to become fully ready, especially if subjected to the process in thick masses: the time may be stated at double that of potatoes. When the apparatus is ill constructed, the time, in some cases, required to cook turnips, extends to 5 hours. And, with reference to the appa.

remarked by those who have much to do with blood-horses, that, when at liberty, and seeing two or more people standing conversing together, they will approach, and seem, as it were, to wish to listen to the conversation. The farm-horse will not do this; but he is quite obedient to call, and distinguishes his name readily from that of his companions and will not stir when desired to stand until his own name is pronounced. He discriminates between the various sorts of work he is put to, and will apply his strength and skill in the best way to effect his purpose, whether in the thrashing-mill, the cart, or the plough. He soon acquires a perfect knowledge of the nature of his work. I have seen a horse walk very steadily towards a feering pole, and halt when he had reached it. He seems also to have an idea of time. I have heard a horse neigh almost daily about 10 minutes before the time of loosening from work in the evening, whether in summer or winter. He is capable of distinguishing the tones of the voice, whether spoken in anger or otherwise, and can even distinguish between musical notes. There was a workhorse of my own, even when at his corn, would desist eating, and listen attentively, with pricked and moving ears and steady eyes, the instant he heard the note of low G sounded, and would continue to listen as long as it was sustained; and another was similarly affected by a particular high note. The recognition of the sound of the bugle by a trooper, and the excitement occasioned in the hunter when the pack give tongue, are familiar instances of the extraordinary power of particular sounds on horses, in recalling old associations to their memory. The horse's memory is very tenacious, as is evinced in the recognition of a regarded stable after a lengthened absence.

1472. As to the names of farm-horses, I may mention that they should be short and emphatic, not exceeding two syllables in length, for longer words are difficult of ready pronunciation, and inconvenient to utter when quick or sharp action is required of the horse; and are almost always corrupted into short ones. For geldings, Tom, Brisk, Jolly, Tinker, Dragon, Dobbin ; for mares, Peg, Rose, Jess, Molly, Beauty, Mettle, seem good names; and as to those of stallions, they should be indicative of more importance, as Lofty, Farmer, Plough-boy, Matchem, Diamond, Blaze, Sampson, Champion-which last is the name of the black stallion pictured in Plate IV. -are all names which have distinguished prize draught stallions.

1473. Diseases of Horses.-In respect to the diseases of the horse, if we were to regard in a serious light the list of frightful maladies incident to this animal, which every work on veterinary science contains, the farmer would never purchase a horse; but, fortunately for him, his horses are exempt from the largest proportion of those maladies, which chiefly relate to the foot and leg. Nevertheless, many serious and fatal disorders do overtake farm-horses in their usual work, with the symptoms of which you should be so far acquainted as to recognise the nature

of the disease; and as you should be able to perform some of the simpler operations to assist the animal in serious cases, until the arrival of the veterinary surgeon, a short account of these may prove useful. One or more simple remedies, when timely exercised, may have the effect of quickly removing the symptoms of less serious complaints. They consist of bleeding, giving physic and drenches, applying fomentations, poultices, injections, and the like.

1474. Bleeding." In the horse and cattle, sheep and dog, bleeding, from its greater facility and rapidity," says Professor Dick," is best performed in the jugular or neck vein, though it may also be satisfactorily performed in the plate and saphena veins, the former coming from the inside of the arm, and running up directly in front of it to the jugular; the latter, or thigh-vein, running across the inside of that limb. Either the fleam or lancet may be used. When blood is to be drawn, the animal is blindfolded on the side to be operated upon, and the head held to the other side; the hair is smoothed along the course of the vein by the moistened finger, the point selected being about 2 inches below the angle of the jaw. The progress of the blood toward the heart is to be obstructed, and the vein thus made sufficiently permanent and tense. A large-bladed fleam, and a good sized-lancet, are preferable, as the benefit of the operation is much increased by the rapidity with which the blood is drawn. From 8 to 10 pints imperial is a moderate bleeding for the horse and ox, regulated in some degree by the size. From 12 to 16, or even 20 pints, is a large one; and sometimes, in skilful hands, it is expedient to bleed till fainting is induced, and the animal drops down under the operation. The vessel in which the blood is received should be such that the quantity can be readily ascertained. When this is sufficient, the edges of the wound are to be brought accurately together, and kept so, by a small sharp pin being passed through them, and retained by a little tow. It is of importance, in closing the wound, to see it quite close, and that no hairs or other foreign bodies interpose. For a time the head should be tied up, and care taken that the horse does not injure the part."

1475. The dangers arising from carelessness in blood-letting are not numerous; and "the first of which, though it may alarm the inexperienced, is very trifling. It is a globular swelling, thrombus, sometimes as large as the fist, arising immediately around the new-made incision. The filtrating of the blood from the vein into the cellular membrane, which is the cause of the disease, is rarely very copious. Gentle pressure may be used at first, and should be maintained with a well-applied sponge and bandage, kept cool with cold lotion. Occasionally there is inflammation of the jugular from bleeding. The cause is usually referred to the use of a foul fleam, or from allowing hairs to interfere with the accurate adjustment of the edges of the wound. The first appearance indicative of the disease is a separation of the cut edges of the integuments, which become red and