disagreeably in the lower animals. Hence it must not be given to them pure, or in large quantities, but mixed in small proportion with other oils, as linseed, or in a pill; and, with these precautions, it may be found at once safe and efficacious."

1505. Nebula, or specks in the eye.-Farmhorses are not subject to the more violent diseases of the eye; but being liable to accidents, the effects of inflammation-nebulæ or specksdo sometimes appear. "The former are superficial, the latter dip more deeply into the substance of the part. Directly in the sphere of vision, these of course impede it, and cause obscurity of vision. Even here we must proceed gently. These blemishes are the pure consequences of inflammation, and, this subdued, their tendency is to disappear. Time and nature will do much, and the duty of the practitioner consists in helping forward the salutary process, where necessary, by gently stimulating washes, whilst irritating powders should be avoided."* With these sensible remarks of Professor Dick, I shall conclude what I have to say of the diseases of the farm-horse at this time.

1506. The offals of the horse are not of great value. His hide is of most value when free of blemishes. It tans well and forms a good leather, which, on being japanned, is chiefly used for covering carriages. I was informed by a friend who settled in Buenos Ayres as a merchant, that he once bought a lot of horses, containing no fewer than 20,000, for the sake of their hides alone, and that some of them would have fetched good prices in England. They were all captured with the lasso. Hides sent from Buenos Ayres have merely been dried in the sun.

66

1507. "Hair, horn, and wool," says Professor Johnston, are distinguished from the muscular parts of the animal body by the large proportion -about 5 per cent-of sulphur which they contain. They consist of a substance which, in other respects, closely resembles gluten and gelatin in its chemical composition. burned, they leave from 1 to 2 per cent of ash.

When

The inorganic matter contained in hair is, generally speaking, the same in kind as that which exists in the muscular fibre and in the bone. It contains the same phosphates of lime and magnesia, the same sulphates and the same chlorides, among which latter common salt is most abundant. The absolute quality of ash or inorganic matter varies, as well as the relative proportions in which the several substances are mixed together in the different solid parts of the body; but the substances themselves of which the inorganic matter is composed are nearly the same, whether they be obtained from the bones, from the muscle, or from the hair."+

1508. "Hair, of all animal products, is the least liable to spontaneous change. It can be

dissolved in water only at a temperature somewhat above 230° Fahr. in Papin's digester, but it appears to be partially decomposed by this heat, since some sulphuretted hydrogen is disengaged. By dry distillation, hair gives off several sulphuretted gases, while the residuum contains sulphate of lime, common salt, much silica, and some oxides of iron and manganese. It is a remarkable fact that fair hair affords magnesia instead of these latter two oxides. Horse-hair yields about 12 per cent of the phosphate of lime. Hair also yields a bituminous oil, which is black when the hair is black, and yellowishred when the hair is red."+

1509. "Hairs are tubular, their cavities being filled with a fat oil having the same colour with themselves. Hair plunged in chlorine gas is immediately decomposed, and converted into a viscid mass; but when immersed in weak aqueous chlorine it undergoes no change, except in a little bleaching."

1510. "Hair, as an object of manufacture, is of two kinds-the curly and the straight. The former, which is short, is spun into a cord, and boiled in this state, to give it the tortuous springy form. The long straight hair is woven into cloth for sieves, and also for ornamental purposes, as in the damask hair-cloth of chair bottoms. For this purpose it is dyed of various colours." Horse-hair is also used for fishinglines, and horse-tails for cavalry caps.

1511. "Button moulds are nrade of the bones of the horse, ox, and sheep. The shavings, sawdust, and more minute fragments in making these moulds, are used by the manufacturers of cutlery and iron toys, in the operation of case-hardening, so that not the smallest waste takes place."§ The bones of all these animals, when reduced small, make the valuable manure bone-dust, well known to every farmer.

1512. "The bones, like the muscles, consist of a combustible and an incombustible portion; but in the bones the inorganic or incombustible part is by much the greater. The incombustible portion consists, for the most part, of phosphate and carbonate of lime. The relative proportions of these two earthy compounds also vary with the kind of animal, with its age, its condition, its food, and its state of health. form 100 lbs. of bone, the animal will usually require to incorporate with its own substance about

To

1513. M'Queen estimated in 1836 the number of horses employed in agriculture, in the whole kingdom, at 1,609,178, and valuing these at £25 each, the amount would be £40,229,450.

1514. If we take his estimate of the annual increase of agricultural horses at 8000, at £25 each, their value is £200,000; and supposing that this number is sufficient to supply the tear and wear occasioned by work, the yearly estimate of the wear and tear may thus be taken at onetwentieth of the entire value, or £2,000,000 ayear. Marshall, and the Agricultural Committee of 1821, estimated the wear and tear of farm

horses at one-tenth; but if the annual increase is correct, as given by M'Queen, this cannot be the proportion, and I should say, from ordinary experience, that it is above the mark.

1520. The stealing of horses is not now a capital crime.

1521. "By cases, it is seen that it is not necessary, by the law of Scotland, that a horse should be warranted sound at the period of sale, as is generally thought, to entitle the buyer to return it, should it prove unfit for the purpose for which it is sold. By the law of England, warrandice is necessary to entitle the buyer to return an unsound horse. By the law of both Scotland and England, the buyer of a subject sold with all faults, has no right to question the

sale, when he has not been drawn into it by

fraud, (Shaw, Dec. 1594, M. 14229; Baglehole, 3 Camp. 154.) See Lord Eldon's judgment in the

1522. I have said (9) that the agricultural pupil should have no horse of his own at first, to tempt him to leave home and neglect his own training; and before he is entitled to one, he should know how to groom it, to be able to correct the groom when he neglects his duty, or performs it in an improper manner. I would advise the pupil himself to undertake the charge of a horse for some time-not merely to superintend its keeping, but to clean it himself, to water and corn it at stated times at morning, noon, and night, and to keep the saddle and bridle in proper order. I groomed a new-broke-in blood filly for four months one winter, and got more insight into its form, temper, management, and wants, than I could have obtained by observation alone in a much longer time. On coming home even at night, from visiting a friend, I made it a point with myself to make the mare comfortable for the night before indulging in my own rest.

1523. Usually a young lad, a groom, is hired by the farmer to take charge of his saddle or harness horse, or of both, to go errands and to the post-office, and otherwise to make himself serviceable in the house. Sometimes the hedger or shepherd acts the part of groom. My shepherd acted as groom, and his art in grooming was so skilful, that many friends would have been glad could their professed grooms have turned out the saddlehorse or drag in as good a style. Besides being useful in carrying the farmer to market, or other short distances, a roadster when it is of large extent, and the workis required to carry him over the farm people require pretty constant superinten

The Customs Act, 26th June 1846.

dence in the important operations of seed-time and harvest. A harness-horse is useful to a family at all times, and to the farmer himself when he visits his friends; and many farmers now prefer riding to market in a gig or drosky to horseback.

1524. A saddle or harness-horse is treated somewhat differently in the stable from a work-horse. The first thing to be done early in the morning is to shake up the litter nearest the strand with a fork, removing the dung and soiled straw to a court-yard, and sweeping the floor clean. Then give the horse a drink out of the pail, which is constantly kept full of water in the stable. The usual practice is to offer the water immediately before giving the corn; but I conceive it more conducive to the health of the horse to slake his thirst a while before giving him corn, to allow the water time to reach its destination, and acquire the temperature of the body. Should the horse have to undertake a longer journey than walking about the farm, the allowance of water should be stinted to 10 gluts; but if he is to be at home, he may drink as much as he pleases.

1525. The grooming is begun by first removing the sheet, and gently going over the whole body with the currycomb, fig. 109, to remove any particles of mud that may possibly have escaped the former night's grooming, and also to raise the scurf from the skin; and then wisping down with straw, to clear off what the currycomb may have raised to the surface. The brush follows, to clear the hair of its scurf, the currycomb being used to clean the brush. Of wisping and brushing, wisping is the more beneficial to the legs, where the hair is short and the tendons and bones are but little covered, because it excites warmth and cleans sufficiently. Both wisping and brushing should be begun at the head and terminated at the other end of the body, along the lie of the hair, which, notwithstanding different swirls, tends from the upper to the lower part of the body. Many a groom rests content with a brushing only; but it does not effectually remove the dust raised to the surface, and a wisping is required to do it. The horse should be turned round in the stall, to have his head, neck, coun

ter, and fore-legs, wisped, which, when done, he is again turned to his former position, to have the body, quarters, and hind-legs, wisped over; and when the whole of this has been accomplished, the horse may be considered clean. All this grooming implies the bestowal of much more labour than most farmers' riding-horses receive. They are usually scuffled over in the morning with the currycomb, and skimmed with the brush, and with a hasty combing of the mane and tail the job is considered finished. The mane and tail ought to be carefully combed out, and wetted over at the time of combing with a half-dry water-brush. The sheet should then be thrown over the horse, and in putting it on, it should be thrown more towards the neck of the horse than where it is intended to remain, and from thence drawn gently down the hair with both hands, to its proper position, while standing behind the horse. It is kept in its place by means of the roller, which should be buckled on tightly. The litter is then neatly shaken up with a fork, taking care to raise the straw so far up the travis on each side as to form a cushion for the side of the horse to rest against when he lies down.

1526. The feed of corn is then given him, and a little hay thrown into the rack; and on the stable-door being shut, he is permitted to enjoy his meal in peace. At mid-day he should have another drink of water from the pail, the dung removed, the litter shaken up, and another portion of oats given him. At 8 o'clock at night the sheet should again be taken off, the currycomb and brush used, and the entire dressing finished again with a wisping. The sheet is then thrown over him as in the morning, the litter shaken up and augmented, water given, and the supper of oats, or a mash, finishes the day's treatment of the saddle-horse.

1527. The wisp for this purpose is best made of Russia mat, first wetted and then beaten to a soft state, and after being dried is rolled up in the form of a wisp, just large enough to fill the hand. This wisp cleanses the surface of the hair most effectually when it is damped with a little water and dried by being beaten against a stone wall.

1528. A wisp of horse-hair cloth makes a horse's skin very clean; but in dry weather it is apt to excite such a degree of electricity in the hair of the horse as to cause it to attract much dust to it.

1529. The treatment just described is most strictly applicable to the horse remaining all day in the stable; but when he is ridden out, a somewhat different procedure is required. When he comes home from a dirty ride, the first thing is to get clear of the mud on the belly and legs. A very common practice is to wade the horse through the pond, as the farmhorses are; but this should not be done, since wading through a pond cannot thoroughly clear the legs of mud to the skin, and there still remains the belly to be cleaned by other means than wading. The plan is, in winter, to bring the horse into the stable upon the pavement, and, on taking off the saddle and bridle and putting on a halter, scrape all the mud as clean off the belly and legs as can be done with a blunt knife. With a pailful of lukewarm water wash down the legs, outside and inside, with a water-brush, fig. 116, then each foot separately, Fig. 116.

THE WATER-BRUSH.

picking out the mud with the foot-picker, fig. 105, and washing the mud clean from the belly with the water-brush. A scrape with the back of the knife, after the washing, will bring out all the superfluous water from amongst the hair in the belly, and a stroke down the legs with the hands will clear them of most of the water. On going into the stall the horse should be wisped firmly with straw, rubbing the belly first, and then both sides of each leg until thoroughly dry. It is scarcely possible to dry the belly at once, so it should get another good wisping with dry clean straw after the legs are dry. The head, neck, and body are then thoroughly cleaned with the currycomb, brush, and

wisp, as above described. On combing out the mane and tail, putting on the sheet, and bedding plentifully with dry straw, the horse will be placed out of danger, and feel pretty comfortable even for the night; but should he have arrived some time before the evening time for grooming, the currycomb and wisp reapplied then will remove any moisture or dust that may have escaped before.

1530. Considerable apprehension is felt in regard to wetting the abdomen of horses, especially at night-and the apprehension is not ill founded, for if the moisture is allowed to remain, even to a small degree, its quick evaporation ensues from the excited state of the body consequent on exercise, and rapidly reduces the temperature of the skin. The consequence of such a cooling tends to irritate the skin, and bring grease into the legs, and this is the danger attending the wetting of the bellies of farm-horses with cold water; but warm water cleanses the hair and makes it dry sooner, even on the abdomen, where it is generally much longer than on the legs. Unless, however, as much labour is bestowed as will dry the skin, and which is usually more than may be expected from ordinary country grooms, it is safer for the horse to remain in a somewhat dirty state all night, than to risk the consequences of an attack of grease and inflammation by neglected wet limbs and abdomen. If the requisite labour shall be bestowed to render the skin completely dry, less risk is incurred in wetting the belly than the legs, inasmuch as the legs, in proportion to their magnitude, expose a much larger surface for evaporation, and are not so near the source of animal heat as the body.

1531. Clipping the hair close to the body of saddle and harness-horses, has been recommended and practised pretty extensively within the last few years. The effects likely to arise from this operation may be collected from these remarks of a veterinary surgeon:-"If the owner," says he, "cannot suffer a long coat of hair, and will have it shortened, he must never allow the horse to be motionless while he is wet or exposed to a cold blast. He must have a good groom and a good stable. Those who have both, seldom

have a horse that requires clipping, but, when clipped, he must not want either. A long coat takes up a deal of moisture, and is difficult to dry; but, whether wet or dry, it affords some defence to the skin, which is laid bare to every breath of air when deprived of its natural covering. Every one must know from himself whether wet clothing and a wet skin, or no clothing and a wet skin, is the most disagreeable and dangerous. It is true that clipping saves the groom a great deal of labour. He can dry the horse in half the time, and with less than half the exertion which a long coat requires; but it makes his attention and activity more necessary, for the horse is almost sure to catch cold if not dressed immediately. When well clothed with hair he is in less danger, and not so much dependent upon the care of his groom."* These observations contain the whole rationale of clipping, and show it is inapplicable to farm-horses, and, as country grooms are usually qualified, clipping would prove but problematically beneficial to the saddle or harness horse of

the farmer.

1532. Saddle-horses receive oats in proportion to the work they have to perform, but the least quantity supposed to keep them in such condition as to enable them to do a day's work at any time, is three half-feeds a-day-one in the morning, another at mid-day, and a third at night. When subjected to daily exercise, riding-horses require three feeds a-day, and an extra allowance for extra work, such as a long journey. A mash once aweek, even when on work daily, is requisite; and when comparatively idle, a part of the mash prepared for the workhorses, may be administered with much advantage. I am no advocate of a bran mash to a horse in good health, as it serves only to loosen the bowels without bestowing much nourishment. Boiled barley is better. A riding-horse should have hay, and not straw, in winter; and he will eat from a half to three-quarters of a stone of 22 lbs. daily.

1533. A method of feeding harnesshorses is practised by Mr R. G. Durham, Turnham Green, London, on his omnibus

horses. They are now partly fed on carrots, instead of wholly on oats as formerly, and the results deserve the attention of the farmer in supporting his own saddlehorse. Mr Durham observes:-"I make bold to offer to the keepers of horses a plan which I have successfully practised for the last three years, to save a large consumption of oats; and, having had the management of upwards of 200 horses belonging to the Hammersmith Conveyance Company, I can confidently state that the plan is not only a great saving in expense, but is in the highest degree conducive to the health, and the development of the capabilities of the horse. In autumn I lay in a sufficient store of either white or red carrots, (white preferred,) to last till the spring, and from every stud of 8 horses I deduct from their daily allowance of oats, (which is 4 bushels, or 152 lbs.,) 1 bushel, or 38 lbs., in place of which I substitute about 72 lbs. of carrots sliced thin, and then mixed with the chaff and oats-thus saving one bushel of oats in every stud per day; a ton of carrots being equal to 4 quarters of oats. Now, taking the number of horses working in the omnibuses round London at 8 per omnibus, and the number of omnibuses at 1400, the saving in the consumption of oats by omnibus horses only would be 1,400 bushels, or 175 quarters, per day. But almost all descriptions of horses do well upon this food. Blaine, in his Veterinary Art, says of carrots that 'agricultural horses may be supported on them wholly, when sliced and mixed with chaff; the sweet parsnip has similar properties, and may be used with almost equal success; and the Swedish turnip has proved an excellent food, the sugar predominating in all these to an eminent degree;' and he adds, but carrots stand foremost, and hardly too much can be said on their excellent qualities. They appear particularly favourable to condition, as the skin and hair always look well under their use; they are highly nutritious, and so favourable are they to the free exercise of the lungs that horses have been found even to hunt on them, and, in conjunction with a certain portion of corn, would form as good a food as could be devised for our coach and machine horses and our hack