left over after serving the other two lots. The facts brought out in this experiment are, that the pigs "fed exclusively upon boiled meat did thrive in a superior manner to the others, and even to those which had an occasional mixture of raw and boiled meat; thus showing that boiled meat is at all times more nutritive than raw." The "pigs were repeatedly washed with soap and water, which refreshed them greatly, and caused them to relish their food." Those "which got a mixture of food both prepared and raw, approached nearer to those which were fed on boiled to their feeding properties; but they appeared occasionally shy at having their meat so mixed. It is therefore better, in general, to continue for some time only one description of food; as, whatever the animals become accustomed to they begin to relish, and thrive upon it accordingly."*

1592. Mr Robert Walker, Ferrygate, East Lothian, also made an experiment on the same subject in the same year. He put 5 pigs on steamed potatoes and prepared broken barley, and other 5 on raw potatoes and raw broken barley. The pigs were 2 months old. On the 4th March 1833, the live-weight of the 5 pigs fed on raw food was 7 st. 10 lbs. ; on the 1st June following, it was 16 st. 13 lbs., showing an increase of 8 st. 3 lbs. or on each pig of 1 st. 9 lbs. On the 4th March the live-weight of those fed on steamed food was 7 st. 8 lbs., and on the 1st June it was 19 st. 13 lbs., showing an increase of 12 st. 5 lbs., or on each pig of 2 st. 6 lbs. The increase in the time was 67 lbs. more than double the original live-weight of the pigs fed on steamed food; whereas, in those fed on raw, the increase was only 7 lbs. more than the double; so that there can be very little doubt," as Mr Walker concludes, "that steamed food is more profitable for feeding pigs than raw food. In fact, I do not think it possible to make pigs fat on raw potatoes, without other food, when confined to them alone."+

66

1593. The late Mr James Scott, Beauchamp, Forfarshire, on converting potatoes into tapioca, which he raised in great quantities on that large farm, used part of the refuse for his horses, and part, assisted by peas, for feeding pigs, to the number of 400 every year.

1594. Dairy farms are well suited for rearing pigs on the dairy refuse in summer; but in winter the most that can be done is to keep the brood sows in pig in fair condition for littering in spring. On carse and pastoral farms, no more pigs can conveniently be reared than to serve the farmer's family. On mixed farms, pigs constitute a portion of the regular stock.

1595. With regard to the diseases of swine, they are fortunately not numerous, as it is no easy matter to administer medicine to them. The safest plan, in most cases, I believe, is to slaugh

Fig. 127.

1

ter them whenever any symptoms of internal disease show themselves. Swine are infested with a louse (Haematopinus suis,) like all domesticated animals. It was described by the old naturalists under the name of Pediculus suis. It is represented in fig. 127. Head and thorax of a dull rusty colour, the former pear-shaped and narrow, with an angular black line at the apex, and one on each side before the eyes; abdomen large, flat, and oval, of a bluish or yellowish ash-gray colour, most of the segments with a black horny prominence at each side, surrounding a white breathing-hole; legs pale ochre-yellow, the thigh marked with dusky bands; length 14 to 1 line. This species is generally very plentiful on swine, more particularly on those fresh imported from Ireland. It appears to abound most on lean animals. "In walking," says Mr Denny, "it uses the claw and tibial tooth with great facility (which act as a finger and thumb) in taking hold of a single hair; the male is much smaller, sub-orbicular, and the segments lobate. The egg or nit is of a line in length, of a cream colour, and elegantly shagreened, oblong, and slightly acuminated, surrounded by a lid which, when the young insect is ready to emerge, splits circularly-or, as a botanist would say, has a circumcisile dehiscence."+ Oil in the first stage, and mercurial ointment in after stages, will destroy this insect.

THE SOW-LOUSE, (HE

MATOPINUS SUIS.)

1596. Consumption is a disease which affects pigs. It is brought on by "neglect and exposure to cold and damp. The animal becomes thin, the coat staring, the skin appearing as if glued to the ribs ; obstinate cough supervenes ; discharge is frequent from the nose, and glandular swellings appear about the neck. On dissection, the lungs are studded with tubercles." "It is in the early stage alone of the complaint," observes Professor Dick, "that any thing can be done, and the prospect of cure is but faint."§ In alluding to the lungs, I may mention a remarkable instance of their state I once observed in a sow of my own. She had borne several litters, and became asthmatic, which increasing so as to appear distressing to the animal, she was killed; and one lobe of the lungs was found to be so completely ossified, that its surface was converted into a shell nearly as hard as the crust of a crab, and was filled with a thick yellow fluid. Having understood afterwards that this was a remarkable case, I regret that the lobe was not examined by a veterinarian. I take this opportunity of suggesting to every farmer, who may happen to meet with an instance of structural

disorganisation, whether external or internal, in a part of any animal he owns, to have it examined by a competent veterinarian.

1597. Pigs are subject to a cutaneous disease called measles, which is supposed to render the flesh unwholesome. "The measles," says a writer, are very prevalent, though seldom fatal; and if not checked, affect the grain of the

66

meat, which may be commonly seen in the shops of a faded colour, and the flesh punctured, as it were, with small holes, or distensions of the fibre. The commencement of the disease appears in languor and decline of appetite, followed by

small pustules in the throat, together with red and purple eruptions, more distinct after death than during the life of the animal; but may, it is said, be removed in this stage by giving small quantities of levigated crude antimony in the food. Generally speaking, even if the animals be in health, a small quantity of nitre and sulphur, occasionally mixed up with their food, besides stimulating their appetite, will frequently prevent disease: neither can we too much insist on cleanliness, nor upon the punctual regularity of feeding at stated times." The injunction contained in the last words, if followed, will do more for the preservation of health in pigs, than the administration of any specific after disease has once shown itself. I can truly say, that, with the simple means here enjoined, I never had a pig in the least affected in the skin by

disease or vermin.

ON THE TREATMENT OF FOWLS IN WINTER.

1598. Of all the animals reared on a farm, none are so much neglected by the farmer, both as regards selection of theirkind and disposition to fatten, as every sort of domesticated fowl. Indeed, the supposition that any farmer should devote a part of his time to the consideration of poultry, is regarded by him as an unpardonable affront on his manhood. Women only, in his estimation, are fit for such a charge-and doubtless they are, and would do it well too, were they not begrudged of every particle of good food they may bestow on poultry. The consequence is, as might be expected in every farmstead, the surprise to find a single fowl of any description in good condition-that is, such as it might be killed at the instant in a fit state for the table. The usual objection against feeding fowls is, that they do not pay-and no doubt the market price received for lean, stringy-fleshed, sinewy-legged fowls is far from remunerative; but whose fault is it they are sent to market in that state, but the rearer of them? and why

should purchasers give a high price for fowls in such a condition? Some excuse might be made for having lean fowls, were any difficulty experienced in fattening them: but there is none; and the idea of expense is a bugbear, and, like all other fears, would vanish were a plan adopted for rearing fowls more consonant with common-sense than the one usually pursued, which seems to be founded upon the notion that fowls can never be ill off if they are at liberty to shift for themselves. Such a sentiment involves a grievous error in the rearing of any kind of live stock. Better keep no stock at all than rear them on such a principle. Fowls may be deemed a worthless stock, and 30 they generally are; but they are so only on account of the mode of managing them. Apart from every consideration of profit to be derived from sales in market towns, a desire should exist in the farmer to have it in his power, at all times, to present a well-fed fowl at his own table; but he cannot feel such a desire, while he grudges the food required to make them so.

that economy would attend good feeding He may rest assured in the long run, as good poultry always at command would save a long butcher's bill now and then, which must be settled with cash-and cash cannot be commanded by the farmer except by sale at market of some commodity of the farm. Few farmers kill their own mutton, that is, keep fat sheep for their own use: lamb, they do kill in the season; but as to beef, it is always purchased - so that, situate as the farmer's family usually is, the produce of the poultry-yard and pig-sty should constitute the principal fare upon their board. And why should they not have these in the highest perfection?

turkey (Meleagris gallopavo),—the goose (Anas anser), the duck (Anas domestica) and the pigeon (Columba livia), the white-backed or rock-dove, which was long confounded with the blue-backed dove (Columba anas). In regard to all these, I shall first state their condition in winter, and then describe the mode in which they should all be fed on nearly the same ingredients.

1601. And first, in regard to the condition of the hen. As hatchings of chickens are brought out from April to September, there will be broods of chickens of different ages in winter-some as old as to be capable of laying their first eggs, and others mere chickens. The portion of the broods taken for domestic use are the young cocks and the older hens, there being a natural reluctance to kill young hens, which will lay eggs largely in the following season. At all events, of the hen-chickens, the most likely to become good layers should be preserved. The marks of a chicken likely to become a good hen are, a small head, bright eyes, tapering neck, full breast, straight back, plump ovoidal-shaped body, and moderately long grey-coloured legs. Every yellow-legged chicken should be used, whether male or female, their flesh never being so fine as the others. As to the colour of the feathers, that is not a matter of much importance, some preferring to have them all white, others all black; but I believe there is none better for every useful purpose than the mottled grey. Young fowls may either be roasted or boiled, the male making the best roasted, and the female the neatest boiled dish. The older birds may be boiled by themselves, and eaten with bacon, or assist in making broth, or that once favourite winter-soup in Scotland-cockieleekie. A chicken never eats more tenderly than when killed a short time before being dressed; but if not so soon used, it should hang in the larder for three or four days in winter. An old fowl will become the more tender on being kept for a week before being used. The criterion of a fat hen, when alive, is a plump breast, and the rump feeling thick, fat, firm, on being handled laterally between the finger and thumb. The skin of the abdomen should be thick and fat, and fat should

be found under the wings. White flesh is always preferable, though poulterers insist that a yellow-skinned chicken makes the most delicate roast, which I very much doubt. A hen is deprived of life by dislocation of the neck on being overdrawn, and there the blood collects and coagulates.

1602. Turkeys, being hatched in May, will be full grown in stature by winter, and, if they have been well fed in the interval, will be ready for use. Indeed, the Christmas season never fails to create a large demand for turkeys; and it must be owned there are few more delicate and beautiful dishes presented at table, or a more acceptable present to a friend, than a well-fed turkey. Young cocks are selected for roasting, and young hens for boiling, and both are most relished with a slice of ham, or of pickled oxtongue. The varieties in common use are white, black, or mottled grey; and of these the white yields the fairest and most tender flesh. The criterion of a good turkey, when alive, is the great fulness of the muscles covering the breast-bone, thickness of the rump, and existence of fat under the wings; though the turkey does not yield much fat, its greatest property being abundance of tender white flesh. Young turkeys attain to great weights. I have had, year after year, young cocks weighing, at Christmas, 18 lbs. each in their feathers. Norfolk has long been noted for its turkeys, where they are fed on buck-wheat, and large droves are annually sent to the London market. A turkey is deprived of life by cutting its throat, when it becomes completely bled. The barbarous practice of cutting out the tongue, and hanging by the feet to bleed slowly to death, for the alleged purpose of rendering the flesh white, ought to be strictly forbidden.

1603. Geese, having been hatched in the early part of summer, will also be full grown and fit for use in winter. I believe little difference in flavour or appearance, as a dish, exists between the young male and female goose, though there may be of size.

The criterion of a fat goose is plumpness of muscle over the breast, and thickness of rump, when alive; and, in addition, when dead and plucked, of a

uniform covering of white fat under a fine skin on the breast. It is a good young goose that weighs in its feathers 12 lbs. at Christmas. The goose is a favourite dish at Michaelmas in England, and at Christmas in Scotland; but people tire sooner of goose than of turkey, and, in consequence, it is not so frequently served at table. A green goose, however, is considered a greater delicacy in England than a turkey-poult. Geese are always roasted in Britain, though a boiled goose is not an uncommon dish in Ireland; and their flesh is certainly much heightened in flavour by a stuffing of onions, and an accompaniment of apple-sauce. A goose should be kept a few days before being used. It is bled to death by an incision across the back of the head, which completely frees it of blood. Large flocks of geese are reared in Lincolnshire, and from thence driven to the London market, and many more find their way from Ireland to this country. It is rare to see a grey gander, and as rare a white goose. I remember seeing large flocks of geese on the islands in the Elbe near Hamburg, where they were reared chiefly for their quills, their carcasses being salted and sent to Holland. The invention of the steel pen has much injured the quill-dressing trade, and, in consequence, good quills are now not easily obtained. Geese have long been proverbially good watchers. I have seen a gander dispute the approach of beggars towards the kitchen door, as pertinaciously as a watch-dog.

1604. Ducks, being also early hatched, are in fine condition in winter, if they have been properly fed. Ducklings soon become fit for use, and are much relished with green peas in summer. I believe there is no difference in flavour and delicacy betwixt a young male and female duck. They are most frequently roasted, and stuffed with sage and onions-though often stewed; and if smothered among onions when stewed, few more savoury dishes can be presented at a farmer's table. A duck never eats better than when killed

immediately before being dressed. It is deprived of life by chopping off the head with a cleaver, which completely drains the body of the blood.

1605. Hens and turkeys are most easily caught on their roosts at night with a light, which seems to stupefy them; and geese and ducks may be caught at any hour, in the out-house they may be driven into.

1606. As young pigeons alone are used, and as pigeons do not hatch in winter, they require no other notice at present than what regards their feeding; and to give an idea of their gastronomic powers, of three rock-doves sent to Professor MacGillivray, "the number of oat-seeds in the crop of the second amounted to 1000 and odds, and the barley-seeds in that of another were 510. Now supposing," he observes, "there may be 5000 wild pigeons in Shetland, or in Fetlar, which feed on grain for 6 months every year, and fill their crops once a day, half of them with barley and half with oats, the number of seeds picked up by them would be 229,500,000 grains of barley, and 450,000,000 grains of oats,-a quantity which would gladden many poor families in a season of scarcity. I am unable," he adds, "to estimate the number of bushels, and must leave the task to the curious."* I was curious enough to undertake the task, and found the result to be 422 bushels, or 52 quarters 6 bushels of barley, and 786 bushels, or 98 quarters 2 bushels of oats, or 151 quarters of grain in all.†

1607. The prices of poultry in towns are pretty high. In Edinburgh, for instance, in winter a couple of chickens are 2s. 6d.; hens from 1s. to 1s. 9d. each; ducks 3s. per couple; turkeys, 3s. 6d. to 8s. a-piece; geese, 3s. 6d. to 5s. each; and eggs are from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 8d. per dozen. In the country towns, the prices are fully one-third below, though in London the highest prices are not above these. In Russia, fat turkeys are 1s. 10d.; geese, 2s.; and fowls and ducks, 1s. 3d. per couple!

Venables' Tour in Russia-Appendix.

VOL. I.

2

own.

1608. Farmers usually sell poultry alive, excepting in some parts of the country, such as the Borders, where geese are killed and plucked, for the sake of their feathers, before being sent to market. Poulterers in towns, on the other hand, kill and pluck every sort of fowl for sale-so that the purchaser has it in his power to judge of the carcass; and if he buys an inferior article at a high price, the fault is his It is easy to judge of a plucked fowl, whether old or young, by the state of the legs. If a hen's spur is hard, and the scales on the legs rough, she is old, whether or not you see her head; but the head will corroborate your observation, if the under bill is so stiff that you cannot bend it to a curve, and the comb is thick and rough. A young hen has only the rudiments of spurs, the scales on the legs smooth, glossy, and fresh-coloured, whatever the colour may be, the claws tender and short, the under bill soft, and the comb thin and smooth. An old henturkey has rough scales on the legs, callosities on the soles of the feet, and long strong claws; a young one has none of these. When the feathers are on, an old turkey-cock has a long beard, a young cock but a sprouting one; and when off, the smooth scales on the legs decide the point, beside difference of size in the wattles of the neck, and in the elastic snot upon the nose. An old goose, when alive, is known by the roughness of the legs, the strength of the wings, particularly at the pinions, the thickness and strength of the bill, and the firmness and thickness of the feathers; and when plucked, by the smooth legs, weak pinions and bill, and fine skin. Ducks are distinguished by the same marks, but there is this difference, that a duckling's bill is much longer in proportion to the breadth of its head than that of an old duck. A young pigeon is easily recognised by its pale-coloured, smooth-scaled, tender, collapsed feet, the yellow long down interspersed among the feathers, and the soft under bill. A pigeon that can fly has red-coloured legs, no down, and is too old for use.

1609. The hen-house should be divided into at least four apartments, included

apartments is, to devote one of them to the hens and turkeys, which roost high; and therefore wooden roosts should be put up for them, not narrower than to allow the feet of the fowls to be spread out. The roosting-house for these fowls is in G, Plate II., under a part of a granary. The geese and ducks should rest on the floor, and have a house for themselves, and this may be at the hatching-house. When geese and ducks are obliged to rest below hens, they are made uncomfortable and dirty by the droppings from the latter. There should be a hatching-house to accommodate both classes of birds, when they sit upon their eggs, in separate nests. The fourth apartment is the one for the use of those which are laying their eggs. For convenience, compartments are made in it for containing nests, which are made to suit the nature of the fowls. The largest apartment should be occupied by the most numerous body of fowls, namely, the hens and turkeys; and the egg-house should have access by a trap-ladder and opening through the wall from the outside, to admit the laying hens. There should be an opening with a sliding-shut in the outer door of this, as well as one in those of the geese-house and hatching-house, to give admittance to the birds when disposed to go to rest in the afternoon; and these shuts should be closed every night. In the accommodation thus appropriated to every class of fowls, each apartment will be occupied by its own class. The usual practice is to put all kinds of fowls into the same apartment; and the small space occupied by even a single room seems to be grudged; as if any sort of accommodation, however hampered or incommodious, were good enough for poultry. How breeders and feeders of stock can reconcile their minds to such indifference towards any class of their live-stock, while cherishing the desire of having a good fowl at their table, is more than I can imagine, unless they believe that quite opposite modes of treatment will produce similar results in different classes of animals. In very cold weather, the apartment occupied by the hens and turkeys should be kept warm by any expedient, such as the shutting of doors, and putting straw upon the slated roofs of all the apartments during a con