0 56 0 10 0

1833. In Forfarshire the trace-horse is harnessed differently from that shown in the plate. A broad strap is hooked to the upper part of the back of the collar, and terminates at the other end in a crupper, through which the tail is made to pass, and a haunch strap goes down each side from the top of the quarter to support the trace-chains and stretcher. This plan supports the stretcher well, and completely prevents it striking the hocks of the horse when turning and halting, but it confines the action of the horse very much, and, when the bearing-rein of the bridle is passed over the top of the haims, the horse's head is pulled up to an inconvenient degree. The yoking seen in the plate is

better therefore than this mode.

1834. A set of cart and plough harness was exhibited by Mr David Scott, saddler, Glasgow, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Edinburgh, in 1848, the component parts of which were fastened together by means of springhooks, instead of the common buckle, which seems to me to deserve the attention of farmers. The parts are easily put together and separated. Connected with the same contrivance of spring-hooks was a collar, which being kept together with a spring-hook, may be easily disengaged and expanded, and removed from the neck of the horse in case of the horse falling, and any other part of the harness can be as easily disengaged in case of accident. The price of this form of harness complete is £6, 88.

1835. I may also mention that, at the same Show, Messrs Waldie and Hunter, saddlers, Kelso, exhibited a cart-saddle, the boards and panels of which, being movable, adjust themselves to any form of the horse's back, like a pad. The price of this saddle is £1, 1s.

slip below any part of the harness, as shown below the haunch-strap of the breeching in Plate III. The shaft-horse requires bridle, collar, haims, saddle, and breeching, to be fully equipped. The bridle, collar, and haims, constitute the harness common to both plough and cart. The breeching is buckled to the back part of the wooden tree of the saddle, at such length of strap as suits the length of the horse's quarter. The saddle-as saddle and breeching together are commonly called-is placed on the horse's back immediately behind the shoulder, and strapped firmly on, in case of slipping off in the yoke, with the belly-band, which can scarcely be seen in the plate; the breeching being put over the horse's hindquarter. Time was when a crupper was a general appendage to the breechingthe effect of which was to place an undue pressure upon the root of the horse's tail, when the saddle was pressed forward by the back-chain, on the cart descending a declination. Now that the comfort of animals is better attended to, by the removal of annoyances to the work-horse, the crupper has been generally removed. The back-chain is fastened to the backchain hooks of the shafts of the cart, and gets leave to remain there constantly. In yoking, the shafts are held up with their points elevated; the horse is told to turn and back under them, which he does very obediently, and even willingly; they are then brought down on each side of the horse; the back-chain is then adjusted along the groove of the saddle, to such length as that the draught-chains, when extended, shall be in a straight line to the axle; the shoulder-slings, or draughtchains, are linked to the draught-hook of the cart, at such length as to be an extension of the above line; the breechingchains are linked to the breeching-hooks, of such length as to allow the breeching to hang easily upon the hams of the horse

not to chafe the hair-in his motion forward upon level ground, but as tight as before the back-chain hooks slip as far back as they can upon the runner-staples of the shafts, the hams of the horse shall press against the band of the breeching sufficiently to keep the cart back, before the horse's rump shall touch the front of the body of the cart. The cart belly-band is then buckled round the near shaft under the runner-staple, just as tight as not to press against the horse's chest on level ground, and only when he goes up-hill. All these adjustments of parts are made in a short time, even with a new horse, cart, or harness, and they require no alteration afterwards.

1838. The harness of the trace-horse is simple beyond the collar, haims, and bridle, consisting only of 2 back-bands, belly-band, and trace-chains. The backband is placed where the saddle should be, and is fastened to the trace-chains on either side with a triangular buckle having a long hooked tongue. The trace-chains are linked to the draught-hook h, fig. 11, of the haims at one end, and fastened by a hook at the other end to a staple in the under side of the shafts; the point of which hook is always placed in the inside, to put it out of the way of taking hold of any thing passing near the shafts of the cart. The trace-chains are usually divided in two pieces, one called the short-ends, which pass from the shafts to the stretcher, and the other part stretch from the stretcher to the haims. The short ends are usually left attached to the cart. A hook on each side of the stretcher attaches the shortends to the other part of the trace-chains. The use of the stretcher is solely to expand the trace-chains beyond the hindquarters of the trace-horse. The tracechains being distended from the haims to the shafts, the back-band is hooked on to them, so as always to lie firmly on the horse's back; and the belly-band is also hooked in like manner to the same part of the chains, to keep both ends of the backband firm. The rump-band is hooked on to the trace-chains, so as to lie easy on the rump when these are distended; and the position of this band may vary farther or nearer on the loins or rump, as it may best lie, its use being solely to keep the chain and stretcher from falling on the

horse's hocks when he turns. The reins are then fastened on each side of both horses to the ring of the bridle, having been previously passed through rings on the haims and the back-band. The horses are now ready to start, in as far as the harness is concerned.

1839. To unyoke the horses is just to undo what has been done in yoking; the reins are first taken off and coiled up; the stretcher is unhooked from the chains, and it and the short-ends brought over the head of the shaft-horse and laid upon the shafts of the cart behind him, and the trace-horse is then free; the cart bellyband is then unbuckled; the draughtslings and breeching-chains are unhooked; and on the shafts being raised up, the shaft-horse is free; and on the bearingreins being slipped over the top of the haims, both the horses' heads are free to take a drink of water, or shake themselves.

1840. The cart should always be under cover in a cart-shed when not in use, as, when not so accommodated, and being a machine composed of many parts, the weather soon has an injurions effect upon its upper works. When backed into the port of a cart-shed, the shafts are easily put up out of the way of the horse again being yoked, by hanging the back-chain upon a hook suspended by a chain from the balks of the roof, when the shed is not floored above, and, when it is floored, the hook to support the back-chain may be suspended from a joist of the flooring.

1841. The grease used for farm-carts is commonly a mixture, melted together in equal parts, of tallow or train-oil and common tar. It is kept in a deep narrow tub, and applied with a broad pointed stick. The tub should have a cover, but is usually without one, and subject to collect dust in the cart-shed. When a cart is to be greased, the linch-pin and washer are removed from the projecting point of the axle; the upper part of the wheel is then pulled towards you from the cart with such a jerk as to allow the lower edge of the wheel to remain on the same spot of ground it was, and the point of the axle-arm will then lean upon the edge of the bush at the back of the nave. The grease is then spread upon the upper

side

of the axle-arm with the stick, the wheel pushed back to its proper place, and the washer and linch-pin respectively restored to their proper places in the projecting point of the axle. The groove of the saddle is also greased, to lessen the friction of the back-chain when playing upon it. The grease used for railway carriages has sulphur in it, which is said to make it more durable, and might, no doubt, be used in farm carts, provided the cost were not exorbitant. It is, I believe, a patented article.

1842. Systematic writers on agriculture, when treating of the various plants cultivated on a farm, describe their characters in botanical phraseology; and though this seems a proper mode, when different genera of plants have to be distinguished from each other; yet when mere varieties of the same species, and especially when those varieties are numerous, require to be described, a more natural method of classifying them seems likewise desirable, that other people than botanists may easily distinguish them. Professor Low, when treating of wheat, enumerates 11 different subdivisions* which are cultivated, and which, doubtless, possess distinct botanical characteristics; but such distinctions are not likely to be appreciated by the majority of farmers. Mr Lawson has described 83 varieties of wheat; Colonel le Couteur mentions having in his possession, in 1836, no fewer than 150 varieties; and the Museum of the Highland and Agricultural Society in Edinburgh possesses 141 varieties.§ To distinguish all these varieties by botanical terms would puzzle any farmer.

1843. For this reason, it has occurred to me, that a method should be established for easily recognising the different kinds of grain in use by the external characters of the ear and grain. Colonel le Couteur has given a classification of wheat involving this principle, and adduces a similar reason for attempting it, when he says,"No one has done so, as a branch of agriculture, in those plain terms which may be intelligible, not to the botanist or scientific reader only, but to the great mass of farmers." And the principal object he considers should be held in view, in establishing such a classification, is the nature and qualities of each variety for making bread?

and some beardless ones are apt to become bearded, when cultivated on poor soils and exSome of the other grains posed situations. indicate a tendency to similar sporting, for the potato-oat assumes a beard when sown a long time on the same ground in a poor state. He subdivides beardless wheat into white, red, yellow, and liver-coloured, smooth chaffed, and

velvet chaffed; and the bearded he divides under the same colours. Some varieties of wheat are, no doubt, decidedly downy on the chaff, but others, again, are so very little so, that it is difficult to distinguish them from some of the known that the same wheat will be differently roughest varieties of smooth chaffed; and it is affected, in this respect, by the soil upon which it grows; for a sharp soil renders the chaff and straw smoother and harder than a deaf one, which has a tendency to produce soft and downy chaff and straw. Downiness is thus not a more permanent character than the beard for establishing the denominations of the great divisions of wheat. Conjoining the characters of the grain and ear of wheat, is, in my opinion, injudicious, inasmuch as the character of neither separately can positively indicate the state of the other, and both are not required to indicate the superior properties of any variety of wheat for making bread. A baker at once distinguishes the grain which will afford the best bread; and neither he, nor any farmer, could indicate such a property from the ear of any wheat. Colonel le Couteur assumes a liver-coloured wheat, as a distinctive colour, as well as others. I confess I cannot distinguish this colour; and I never remember to have seen a wheat of a liver-brown colour. I think all the colours of wheat may be classed under two of the primary colours, yellow and red-for even the whitest has a tinge of yellow-and the brownest is deeply tinged with red; and as white and red are the terms by which the colours of the wheat have been longest known, these should be retained; and the subtints of yellow and red found in wheat may be easily designated. The variety of wheat which should form the standard of each colour has never yet been indicated; but, judging from the collection of wheat in the Highland and Agricultural Society's Museum, I should say that the Hungarian white wheat indicates the purest white, and the blood-red wheat the purest red.

1845. Were I to attempt to classify both the wheat plant and grains of wheat, by natural marks, I would make two classifications, one by the ear and the other by the grain, so that each might be described by its own characteristics, and, if desirable, when describing the plant, reference could be made to the characteristics of the grain. In this way confusion would be avoided in describing the ear and the grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain, should be acquainted with both; but the baker, who is only acquainted with the grain, need know nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe at once, + Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual, p.29. § Catalogue of the Museum, p. 63-6.

to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best suited to his purpose.

1846. Wheat.-On examining the ears of wheat that have come under my notice, I think they may be divided into three classes, as represented in fig. 176, which show the ears half the Fig. 176.

CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT BY THE EAR.

natural size, and which may be distinguished thus a is a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near each other on the rachis, and this position makes the chaff short and broad. This specimen of the close-eared wheat is Hickling's Prolific. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis as to screen it from view. The ear is not so broad, but longer than a. The chaff is of medium length and breadth. This specimen is the well-known Hunter's white wheat. The third class is seen at c, the spikelets of which are set open, or so far asunder as to permit the rachis to be easily seen between them. The ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is much narrower. The chaff is long and narrow. This is a specimen of Le Couteur's Bellevue Talavera white wheat.

1847. These three classes of varieties constitute the Triticum sativum imberbe of botanists,that is, all the varieties of the beardless cultivated wheat. Formerly they were divided by

botanists into Triticum hybernum or winter wheat, and Triticum aestivum or summer wheat; but experience has proved that the summer wheat, so called, may be sown in winter, and the winter wheat sown in spring, and both come to perfection. Paxton says that Triticum is derived from "tritum, rubbed-in allusion to its being originally rubbed down to make it eatable." It is of the natural order Gramineæ of Jussien, and of the third class Triandria, second order Digynia, and genus Triticum, of the Linnæan system. In the natural system of Lindley, wheat stands in class iv., Endogens; alliance 1, Glumales; order 29, Graminacea; genus 11, Hordeæ.

1848. In d, fig. 176 is represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which the beard gives to the ear. The bearded wheats are generally distinguished by the long shape of the chaff and the open position of the spikelets, and therefore fall under the third class c. But cultivation has not only the effect of decreasing the strength of the beard, but of setting the spikelets closer together, as in the specimen of the white Tuscany wheat, shown at d in the figure, which is considered the most compact eared and improved variety of bearded wheat. Bearded wheat constitutes the second division of cultivated wheat of the botanists, under the title of Triticum sativum barbatum. The term bearded is used synonymously with spring wheat, but erroneously, as beardless wheat is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and the bearded may be sown in winter.

1849. In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, on observing a great variety of forms, I think they, as well as the ears, may all be classed under three heads. The first class is Fig. 177. shown in fig. 177, where all the grains are short, round, and plump, with the bosom distinctly marked, and well filled up. In the cut, the grain to the left is seen with the median line along its bosom; another, below it, with the round or opposite side lying undermost; and the third and fourth show the germ and radicle ends respectively. All fine white wheat belongs to this class, and is enclosed in short, round, and generally white chaff, which, when ripe, becomes so expanded as to endanger the falling out of the grain. Very few red wheat belongs to this class. In reference to the ear, this class is found in short-chaffed and broad spikelets, which are generally compact, as a fig. 176. The specimens here, of the grain, are of the Hungarian white wheat.

SHORT, ROUND, PLUMP FORM, AND SMALL SIZE OF WHEAT.

1850. The second class is represented by fig. 178, where the grains are long and of medium size, that is, longer and larger than the grains of fig. 177. The chaff is also medium-sized. In reference to the ear, it is of the medium standard,

VOL. I.

2 E

in respect to breadth and closeness of spikelets, as b, fig. 176, though medium-sized grain is not confined to this sort of ear; and is found in the compact ear, as in Hickling's prolific white and Fig. 178. red wheat, as well as in the open ear, such as the red Danzig creeping wheat. Most of red wheat belongs to this class of grain, though many of the white medium-sizedsuch as Hunter's whitealso belongs to it. This speRATHER LONG, cimen of grain is the CaucaMEDIUM-SIZED FORM sian red wheat, whose ear is bearded, and belongs to the open-spiked class c, fig. 176. The left-hand grain shows the median line strongly marked, and the ends of all the grains are sharp.

OF WHEAT.

00%

LARGE SIZE AND
LONG FORM OF
WHEAT.

Its

chaff is long, and, in reference to the ear, the spikelets are generally open; though, in the case of this specimen, the Odessa long white wheat, the ear is medium-sized, and the chaff long as well as the grain. The median line of the uppermost grain is not so distinctly marked as in the two former cases. The ends of the grain are pointed but not sharp, and the skin seems rather coarse. The germ and radicle are boldly marked.

1852. The three sorts of wheat in these figures, all placed in similar positions, are of the natural size, and indicate the forms of the principal varieties of wheat found in our markets.

1853. It will be seen from what has been stated, that no inevitable relation exists between the ear and the grain; that the compact ear does not always produce the round grain nor the white wheat; that in the medium ear is not always found the medium-sized grain; and that the open ear does not always produce the large long grain. Still, there exist coincidents which connect the chaff with the grain. For example, the length of the chaff indicates the length of the grain, upon whatever sort of ear it may be found; and, generally, the colour of the chaff determines that of the grain; and as the open spikelet bears long chaff, the long chaff covers grain of coarser quality than the chaff of the compact ear. On desiring, therefore, to determine the sort of grain any number of ears of different kinds of wheat contain, the form and colour of the chaff determine the point, and not whether the ear carries compact, medium, or open, bearded or beardless, woolly or smooth spikelets.

1854. But the classification of wheat is unimportant to the farmer, compared to the mode of judging it, to ascertain the external characters which best indicate the purposes to which it may be best employed, in the particular con

dition of the sample. The purposes are, for seed and the making of flour-whether the flour is to be employed in the manufacture of bread or of confections, or in some of the arts, as starch-making. In its best condition, all wheat, whether red or white, small or large, long or round, should appear plump within its skin, and not in the least shrivelled or shrunk. The skin should be fine and smooth, and not in the least scaly or uneven in surface. The colour, be it what tint it may, should be bright, lively, and uniform, and not in the least dull, bleached, or particoloured. The grains should all be of the same size and form, not short and long, round and long, small and large. The grains should be quite perfect; there should be no bruises, or holes, or dried rootlets hanging from one end, or woolly appendages protruding from the other. If perfect in all these respects, wheat is fitted for every purpose, and may be purchased by the general merchant. For particular purposes, particular properties must be sought for.

1855. When wheat is quite opaque, indicating not the least translucency, it is in the best state for yielding the finest flour-such flour as confectioners use for pastry; and in this state it will be eagerly purchased by them at a large price. Wheat in this state contains the largest proportion of fecula or starch, and is therefore best suited to the starch-maker, as well as the confectioner. On the other hand, when wheat is translucent, hard, and flinty, it is better suited to the common baker than the confectioner and starch manufacturer, as affording what is called strong flour, that rises boldly with yeast into a spongy dough. Bakers will, therefore, give more for good wheat in this state than in the opaque; but for bread of finest quality the flour should be fine as well as strong, and therefore a mixture of the two conditions of wheat is best suited for making the best quality of bread. Bakers, when they purchase their own wheat, are in the habit of mixing wheat which respectively possesses those qualities; and millers who are in the habit of supplying bakers with flour, mix different kinds of wheat, and grind them together for their use. Some sorts of wheat naturally possess both these properties, and on that account are great favourites with bakers, though not so with confectioners; and, I presume, to this mixed property is to be ascribed the great and lasting popularity which Hunter's white wheat has so long enjoyed. We hear also of "high mixed" Danzig wheat, which has been so mixed for the purpose, and is in high repute amongst bakers. Generally speaking, the purest coloured white wheat indicates most opacity, and, of course, yields the finest flour; and red wheat is most flinty, and therefore yields the strongest flour: a translucent red wheat will yield stronger flour than a translucent white wheat, and yet a red wheat never realises so high a price in the market as white-partly because it contains a larger proportion of refuse in the grinding, but chiefly because it yields less fine flour, that is, starch.

1856. The weight of wheat varies according